Representations of attachment relationships were assessed in 54 children ages 2.5 to 7.5 years whose mothers were currently incarcerated. Consistent with their high-risk status, most (63%) children were classified as having insecure relationships with mothers and caregivers. Secure relationships were more likely when children lived in a stable caregiving situation, when children reacted to separation from the mother with sadness rather than anger, and when children were older. Common reactions to initial separation included sadness, worry, confusion, anger, loneliness, sleep problems, and developmental regressions. Results highlight need for support in families affected by maternal imprisonment, especially efforts to promote stable, continuous placements for children, in addition to underscoring the importance of longitudinal research with this growing but understudied group.

Approximately 1.7 million children have parents who are incarcerated in prison in the United States, and possibly millions of additional children have a parent incarcerated in jail. Many affected children experience increased risk for developing behavior problems, academic failure, and substance abuse. For a growing number of children, incarcerated parents, caregivers, and professionals, parent– child contact during the imprisonment period is a key issue. In this article, we present a conceptual model to provide a framework within which to interpret findings about parent– child contact when parents are incarcerated. We then summarize recent research examining parent–child contact in context. On the basis of the research reviewed, we present initial recommendations for children’s contact with incarcerated parents and also suggest areas for future intervention and research with this vulnerable population.

Concurrent relations among contact with children, perceived family relationships, early experiences of relationship disconnection and trauma, and maternal depressive symptoms were examined in 94 incarcerated mothers with children between the ages of 2 and 7 years. Qualitative analysis revealed that most mothers experienced intense distress when initially separated from their children, although many women currently viewed the situation in a more balanced way. Quantitative findings indicated that fewer visits from children and early experiences of relationship disconnection and trauma were associated with elevated maternal depressive symptoms. Mother-child relationships were more positive when mothers had more frequent telephone contact with older children. Moreover, conflicted relationships with caregivers related to less contact between mothers and their children. Results highlight the need for mental health services for incarcerated women and suggest that interventions aimed at increasing contact between imprisoned mothers and their children should consider the quality of the mother-caregiver relationship.

This longitudinal, mixed method study focused on 57 families of children who participated in a mentoring program for children of incarcerated parents. Children ranged in age from 4 to 15 years. Monthly interviews were conducted with children, caregivers, and mentors during the first six months of program participation, and questionnaires were administered at intake and six months to assess caregiver-child and incarcerated parent-child relationships, contact with incarcerated parents, and children's behavior problems. Although some children viewed their incarcerated parents as positive attachment figures, other children reported negative feelings toward or no relationship with incarcerated parents. In addition, our assessments of children nine years old and older revealed that having no contact with the incarcerated parent was associated with children reporting more feelings of alienation toward that parent compared to children who had contact. Children's behavior problems were a primary concern, often occurring in a relational context or in reaction to social stigma associated with parental imprisonment.

Predictors of maternal depression trajectories were examined longitudinally in families with an infant born preterm or low birthweight. A total of 181 mother-infant dyads enrolled in the study prior to the infant's NICU discharge. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed at five timepoints, and contextual variables and infant risks were assessed at NICU discharge. Hierarchical linear models revealed that mothers who experienced more risk factors reported more depressive symptoms just prior to their infant's NICU discharge and showed less decline in depressive symptoms in the months immediately following the child's birth. Although cumulative risks predicted depression trajectories, this effect appeared driven by maternal and family sociodemographic risks rather than infant risks. Addition of family support as a covariate in the multilevel models with a subsample of families revealed that social support and depression covaried across time. However, most of the findings regarding the association between risk and depression remained consistent, whereas the effects of maternal race and multiple birth were slightly attenuated. Keywords cumulative risks; family support; low birthweight; maternal depression; pretermThe number of infants born preterm (< 37 weeks gestation) or low birthweight (< 2500 grams) has increased in the U.S. and other developed countries and more infants are surviving their Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) stays (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2007), resulting in a growing number of families facing the challenge of caring for vulnerable infants. Mothers of infants born preterm or low birthweight (PT LBW) are at risk for experiencing psychological distress and depression following the child's birth, and although these symptoms tend to decrease over time, some mothers remained depressed (e.g., Miles, Holditch-Davis, Schwartz, Corresponding author information: Julie Poehlmann, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Human Development & Family Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1500 Highland Ave, Madison, WI 53705, poehlmann@waisman.wisc.edu 608-263-4839. Publisher's Disclaimer: The following manuscript is the final accepted manuscript. It has not been subjected to the final copyediting, fact-checking, and proofreading required for formal publication. It is not the definitive, publisher-authenticated version. The American Psychological Association and its Council of Editors disclaim any responsibility or liabilities for errors or omissions of this manuscript version, any version derived from this manuscript by NIH, or other third parties. The published version is available at www.apa.org/journals/fam. & Scher, 2007). Because research with fullterms has found links between persistent maternal depression and less optimal child outcomes (e.g., Campbell, Matestic, von Stauffenberg, Mohan & Kirchner, 2007), it is essential to examine predictors of maternal depression trajectories over time in families with PT LBW infants. In addition, because family support has been associated with maternal mental health a...

The differential susceptibility to parenting model was examined in relation to toddler self-regulation in a prospective longitudinal study of infants born preterm or low birth weight. We followed 153 mother–infant dyads across five time points between the infant’s Neonatal Intensive Care Unit stay and 24 months postterm. Assessments of infant temperament, quality of early parenting interactions, contextual variables, and toddler effortful control and behavior problems were conducted. Results supported differential susceptibility and dual risk models in addition to documenting main effects of early parenting on children’s emerging self-regulation. Our data suggested that preterm or low birth weight infants who were prone to distress or rated by mothers as more difficult were particularly susceptible to the effects of early negative parenting.

Despite the dramatic increase in incarcerated mothers that has occurred in the past decades, there is a paucity of family research focusing on the children affected by maternal imprisonment. The present study investigated family environments and intellectual outcomes in 60 children between the ages of 2 and 7 years during their mothers’ incarceration. Multiple methods were used to collect data from children, mothers, and children's nonmaternal caregivers. Results indicated that most children experienced multiple risks across contextual levels. Cumulative caregiver sociodemographic risks predicted children's cognitive abilities, although quality of the home and family environment mediated this relation. Results underscore the importance of children's family environments and highlight the need for increased monitoring, service delivery, and longitudinal research with children of incarcerated mothers and their families.

The purpose of this article is to apply an attachment perspective to the growing number of families with grandparents raising grandchildren to increase our understanding of the complexity of intergenerational relationship processes in these families and to guide early intervention and research. It is proposed that, as grandparents take responsibility for their grandchildren, three relationship processes simultaneously occur: (1) disruptions in attachments potentially occur, especially in relationships involving parents, (2) attachment relationships between grandchildren and grandparents develop or are revised, and (3) family members' internal working models of attachment and caregiving are challenged and shaped. To address these processes, attachment theory and research focusing on the formation, disruption, and intergenerational transmission of attachment relationships are reviewed. Conclusions suggest that when grandparents assume responsibility for grandchildren, families may need and be particularly open to a range of interventions. In addition, research focusing on attachment relationships in families of grandparents raising grandchildren is needed.RESUMEN: El propósito de este estudio es aplicar la perspectiva de la afectividad al creciente número de familias en las que los abuelos crían a los nietos, para incrementar nuestra comprensión de la complejidad de los procesos de relaciones intergeneracionales en estas familias, y para guiar la temprana intervención e investigación. Se propone que, a medida que los abuelos asumen las responsabilidades de criar a sus nietos, ocurren tres procesos de relaciones simultáneamente: (1) los trastornos en la afectividad posiblemente ocurren, especialmente en aquellas relaciones que involucran a los padres, (2) las relaciones entre abuelos y nietos de desarrollan o se reconsideran, y (3) los modelos internos de afectividad y de prestar cuidado que poseen los miembros de la familia se enfrentan a un reto y adquieren forma. Con el propósito de tratar estos procesos, se revisan tanto la teoría como la investigación sobre la afectividad que se enfoca en la formación, trastorno y transmisión intergeneracional de la afectividad. Las conclusiones sugieren que cuando los abuelos asumen responsabilidad por la crianza de los nietos, las familias pudieran necesitar y estar específicamente dispuestas a una gama de intervenciones. Adicionalmente, se hace necesaria una Special thanks to Inge Bretherton, Mary Brintnall-Peterson, and Kari Morgan for productive conversations regarding links between attachment theory and families with grandparents raising grandchildren, and to two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript. RÉ SUMÉ : Le but de cet article est d'appliquer une perspective d'attachement au nombre croissant de grands-parents qui élèvent leurs petits-enfants, de manière à étendre notre compréhension de la complexité des processus de relation intergénérationnelles dans ces familles et de manière à guider l'intervention préc...