The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

Abstract

The methodological Hawthorne effect, generally denned as the problem in field experiments that subjects' knowledge that they are in an experiment modifies their behavior from what it would have been without the knowledge, originated out of the classic studies at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. Closer examination reveals that although it is a phenomenon that should be of considerable concern to researchers, the Hawthorne effect is poorly understood and, with the passage of time, has taken on several different, yet still quite imprecise meanings. The nature of the artifact is inconsistently described in contemporary psychology textbooks, and there is a lack of agreement on how the effect is mediated. A review of controls for Hawthorne effects in current field research, mostly in education, revealed that the controls took several forms, each designed for different purposes. Studies intended to produce Hawthorne effects suggested that the commonly held notion of the artifact that has evolved is not the problem that plagued the Hawthorne researchers. A remterpretation reveals a different methodological concern that resembles more recent research on the social psychology of the psychological experiment and a need to adopt different methodological control procedures than those normally used to counter the "Hawthorne effect."

Impact of observing hand hygiene in practice and research: a methodological reconsideration

“…The impact of observation on usual behaviour is more complex and less consistent than currently recognised in hand hygiene audit and research because individuals react to the knowledge that they are being watched in different, sometimes unpredictable ways 15,18 . Aware of the emphasis placed on hand hygiene by mangers and infection prevention teams, health workers may respond by cleansing hands more often but they may also adopt strategies to evade observation that are opportunistic and unsystematic.…”

“…Over the years this phenomenon has become known as the 'Hawthorne effect' and has attracted considerable attention from social scientists undertaking research in experimental and naturalistic settings 13,14 . The results of the Hawthorne experiments have been re-analysed numerous times and the original conclusions questioned 13,14 because of the large number of variables that could have affected behaviour but were not controlled 15 . There is confusion over a precise definition of the Hawthorne effect.…”

“…There is confusion over a precise definition of the Hawthorne effect. It is described inconsistently with little understanding of how any resultant behaviour change is mediated or could be controlled 15 .…”

“…There is a consensus that individuals change behaviour when they are studied but not in a consistent or predictable manner 15,17,18 . Identifying the Hawthorne effect and other tactics of avoidance or deferred activity is important when undertaking and interpreting the findings of hand hygiene audit given the current emphasis on hand hygiene globally and the importance of health workers' compliance.…”

If it works there, will it work here? The effect of a multi-component responsible beverage service (RBS) programme on violence in Oslo

“…It is also notable that the estimated effect of the initial STAD project was a 29% reduction, while the subsequent extensions elsewhere in Sweden were much more modest, only around 3% on average . It could perhaps be hypothesised that the initial STAD intervention was associated with a so-called 'Hawthorne effect', i.e., the effects may have been the result of the effects of the involved actors and institutions of being singled out and made to feel important, and not of the intervention per se (Adair, 1984;McCambridge et al, 2014). In later interventions, it may have been difficult to replicate this effect.…”