The extension of the Practical Salinity Scale 1978 to low salinities

Hill, Kathryn; Dauphinee, T. M.; Woods, D.

doi:10.1109/joe.1986.1145154

Cited by 67 publications

(39 citation statements)

References 7 publications

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“…1B). Subsequently, we calculated density profiles after Chen and Millero (1986), using the salinity estimations from CTD after Perkin and Lewis (1980), Chen and Millero (1986), and Hill et al (1986). The contribution of salinity to density was negligible compared with the contribution of temperature.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Seasonal pattern of rotation‐affected internal seiches in a small temperate lake

Bernhardt

Kirillin

2013

Limnology & Oceanography

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The aim was to disclose the seasonality in the internal seiches during summer stratification in 2010 within the small, 3 km long, ellipse-shaped, temperate Lake Arendsee (Germany) with simple morphometry. We used observations of temperatures from two thermistor chains (09 April to 24 September), conductivity and temperature profiles, and wind speeds and directions (January to December). To analyze the seasonality in the periods, appearance and modal structure of the seiches, and the wind forcing, we applied spectral analysis on monthly time series of isotherms and wind speeds, and wavelet analysis on 6 month long time series of integrated potential energy and wind speeds. To determine the effect of earth's rotation on seiches, we applied two analytical models based on three-layer density stratification. Earth's rotation affected internal seiches significantly even in a small lake. That was shown by the models and the Burger number being , 1 during stratification. Vertical mode 1 Kelvin-type seiches dominated the internal seiche weather in Lake Arendsee, with their periods changing because of seasonal variations in stratification. Weak, free seiches of vertical mode 2 were amplified during three episodes: (1) in midsummer, when their periods coincided with the inertial period at the lake's latitude, (2) in late spring, and (3) in autumn, both when their periods approached 24 h. The amplifications were caused by resonance between free seiches and wind-forced oscillations at diurnal and inertial periods. Such short-term resonance events, associated with enhanced mixing, are inherent for the seasonal stratification cycle in the most temperate lakes.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Seasonal pattern of rotation‐affected internal seiches in a small temperate lake

Bernhardt

Kirillin

2013

Limnology & Oceanography

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“…Between the two temperature scales, IPTS-68 and ITS-90, T is linked to t 68 by the relationship, t 68 = 1.00024 · T. While Eq. (1) is valid only in the range of 2 < S < 42, GSW Toolbox adopts the method of Hill et al (1986) for the range of 0 < S < 2. Refer to Fofonoff (1985) and IOC et al (2010) for more details about Eq.…”

Section: Algorithm For Calculating Electrical Conductivitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Electrical conductivity of the global ocean

Tyler

Boyer

Minami

et al. 2017

Earth Planets Space

101

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The electrical conductivity of the ocean is a fundamental parameter in the electrodynamics of the Earth System. This parameter is involved in a number of applications ranging from the calibration of in situ ocean flow meters, through extensions of traditional induction studies, and into quite new opportunities involving the remote sensing of ocean flow and properties from space-borne magnetometers such as carried aboard the three satellites of the Swarm mission launched in 2013. Here, the first ocean conductivity data set calculated directly from observed temperature and salinity measurements is provided. These data describe the globally gridded, three-dimensional mean conductivity as well as seasonal variations, and the statistics of spatial and seasonal variations are shown. This "climatology" data set of ocean conductivity is offered as a standard reference similar to the ocean temperature and salinity climatologies that have long been available.

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“…Thus the original PSS-78 specification (UNESCO 1981b) does not provide satisfactory results when attempting to remove temperature and pressure dependence for very dilute seawaters. Precise measurements were later made of very dilute seawater, which allows the original definition to be extended down to S P = 0 (Hill et al 1986), making it suitable for limnological applications. It is this extended definition that is used here.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…To compute these values, absolute measurements of electrical conductivity k (measured here in a limnological water) are first converted into a ratio R by dividing by a standard value of 42914.0 µS cm -1 (Culkin and Smith 1980). Then, temperature and pressure dependence of R, as well as concentration-dependent changes in the conductivity/salinity ratio is removed by the calculation of oceanographic Practical Salinity S P using the Practical Salinity Scale 1978 (UNESCO 1981b) with the addition of a low-salinity correction (Hill et al 1986), which extends its validity to dilute seawaters. Finally, a Reference Salinity S R , in units of grams solute per kilogram solution is estimated using (IOC et al 2010), (Meybeck 1987) and by continent (after Table 10-2 of Wetzel 2001), with two estimates of the world mean, as well as the major ion composition of a dilute seawater (Pawlowicz 2010) and saline lake Issyk-Kul (Vollmer et al 2002).…”

Section: P1: To Determine S a From A Full Chemical Compositionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Limnological applications of the Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater 2010 (TEOS‐10)

Pawlowicz

Feistel

2012

Limnology & Ocean Methods

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Virtually any study of natural waters relies at some point on knowledge of particular physical properties of the fluid. These physical properties depend on the temperature, pressure, and the chemical composition of dissolved matter in the solution. The amount of dissolved matter is often characterized using a single scalar, the salinity. Since the freshwater and saline inland waters typically studied by limnologists, which we denote "limnological" waters, include a wide range of relative compositions, the relationships between physical properties of different lakes and rivers and the salinity are also variable.Physical properties of particular limnological waters have been estimated by various means. These include direct measurements of the water in question (McManus et al. 1992;Jellison et al. 1999;Vollmer et al. 2002), empirical or semi-empirical "corrections" to known seawater relationships (Vollmer et al. 2002;Fisher and Lawrence 2006), direct numerical calculation based on an analysis of the composition and a chemical theory (Wüest et al. 1996;Millero 2000;Pawlowicz 2008; Boehrer et al. 2010), or for some thermodynamic properties, use of a generic set of "limnological" equations (Chen and Millero 1986). As one might expect for such a heterogeneous set of ad hoc approaches, little is known of the accuracy of the results or the degree to which they can be generalized. The generic equations in particular are the easiest to apply, but give results with the largest degree of uncertainty.Recently, a new international standard for the thermodynamic properties of seawater has been developed, the Ther- AbstractThe new Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater 2010 (TEOS-10) provides a highly accurate, thermodynamically consistent, and complete representation of all thermodynamic properties of seawater over a wide range in temperature and salinity. These properties include density, sound speed, heat capacity, enthalpy, chemical potential, and many others. Here we provide simple procedures by which limnological studies can take advantage of TEOS-10. These require replacing the TEOS-10 salinity argument, seawater Absolute Salinity S A , with a limnological salinity S a . In typical natural waters where anion concentrations are dominated by HCO 3 -or Cl -, S a can be approximated by the solution salinity S a soln , obtained by summing the concentrations of different dissolved constituents in a complete chemical analysis after multiplying by their molar masses. Slightly better results can be obtained, especially at very low salinities where silicic acid Si(OH) 4 is an important constituent, by using a density salinity S a dens carefully defined by dividing the solution salinity into an ionic and a nonionic part and changing the weighting factors for each in the summation. In cases where the dominant anion is HCO 3 -, which covers the majority of inland waters, measurements of electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the ionic salinity, which will be ≈60% greater than the Absolute Salinity of seawater of the same conduc...

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The extension of the Practical Salinity Scale 1978 to low salinities

Cited by 67 publications

References 7 publications

Seasonal pattern of rotation‐affected internal seiches in a small temperate lake

Seasonal pattern of rotation‐affected internal seiches in a small temperate lake

Electrical conductivity of the global ocean

Limnological applications of the Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater 2010 (TEOS‐10)

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