The Evolution of Quantum Key Distribution Networks: On the Road to the Qinternet

Cao, Yuan; Zhao, Yongli; Qin, Wang; Zhang, Jie; Ng, Soon Xin; Hanzo, Lajos

doi:10.1109/comst.2022.3144219

Cited by 140 publications

(78 citation statements)

References 545 publications

(648 reference statements)

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“…One one hand, being the virtual connectivity built on the physical connectivity, it might also depend on the services provided by lower layers of the classical protocol stack (e.g., classical signaling as discussed before). On the other hand, quantum phenomena can affect classical functionalities as well, as instance when QKD [99] is used for securing classical communications. Hence, in addition to the design of the quantum protocol stack, a further yet-to-solve design point is the interaction between classical and quantum networks.…”

Section: Quantum Internet Vs Classical Internetmentioning

confidence: 99%

Quantum Internet Protocol Stack: a Comprehensive Survey

Illiano,

Caleffi,

Manzalini

et al. 2022

Preprint

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Classical Internet evolved exceptionally during the last five decades, from a network comprising a few static nodes in the early days to a leviathan interconnecting billions of devices. This has been possible by the separation of concern principle, for which the network functionalities are organized as a stack of layers, each providing some communication functionalities through specific network protocols. In this survey, we aim at highlighting the impossibility of adapting the classical Internet protocol stack to the Quantum Internet, due to the marvels of quantum mechanics. Indeed, the design of the Quantum Internet requires a major paradigm shift of the whole protocol stack for harnessing the peculiarities of quantum entanglement and quantum information. In this context, we first overview the relevant literature about Quantum Internet protocol stack. Then, stemming from this, we sheds the light on the open problems and required efforts toward the design of an effective and complete Quantum Internet protocol stack. To the best of authors' knowledge, a survey of this type is the first of its own. What emerges from this analysis is that the Quantum Internet, though still in its infancy, is a disruptive technology whose design requires an inter-disciplinary effort at the border between quantum physics, computer and telecommunications engineering.This work was partially supported by project xxx. Jessica Illiano acknowledges support from TIM S.p.A. through the PhD scholarship.

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Section: Quantum Internet Vs Classical Internetmentioning

confidence: 99%

Quantum Internet Protocol Stack: a Comprehensive Survey

Illiano,

Caleffi,

Manzalini

et al. 2022

Preprint

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…A. The Basic Concept of QKD QKD has recently been introduced as a provable secure key distribution solution that can address many potential attacks, such as eavesdropping attacks, in traditional key distribution schemes [9]. In practice, QKD is often adopted in the setup phase of secure communications between two nodes connected with QKD logical links for transmitting confidential data.…”

Section: The Concept Of Qkd Over Sagin and The Quantum-secured Saginmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…There are three types of QKD nodes in optical-based QKD, i.e., quantum transmitters/receivers (transceivers), trusted/untrusted repeaters, and quantum routers. Firstly, each quantum transceiver is a pair of QKD equipment, including a quantum transmitter and a quantum receiver, that can convert bits of local secret keys into qubits and convert qubits into bits of global secret keys, respectively, via prepare-and-measure protocols, e.g., Bennett-Brassard-1984 (BB84), Grosshans-Grangier-2002 (GG02) [9]. Then, the received secure keys are saved by their respective local key managers.…”

Section: The Concept Of Qkd Over Sagin and The Quantum-secured Saginmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The encryption operation of QKD nodes cannot be implemented without the secret keys in their local key managers, and thus the encrypted communication link is temporarily invalid. Although one-time pad encryption can provide information-theoretically secure (ITS) communication, due to the limited secret key provided by optical fiber-based QKD services, the requirement for the one-time pad to have an encryption key of equal length to the plaintext is difficult to achieve [9]. Therefore, the current solution of quantum-secured SAGIN generally updates the secret keys periodically to ensure a certain level of secure communications.…”

Section: The Universal Qkd Service Provisioning Framework In Quantum-...mentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Quantum-Secured Space-Air-Ground Integrated Networks: Concept, Framework, and Case Study

Xu¹,

Niyato²,

Xiong³

et al. 2022

Preprint

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In the upcoming 6G era, existing terrestrial networks have evolved toward space-air-ground integrated networks (SAGIN), providing ultra-high data rates, seamless network coverage, and ubiquitous intelligence for communications of applications and services. However, conventional communications in SAGIN still face data confidentiality issues. Fortunately, the concept of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) over SAGIN is able to provide information-theoretic security for secure communications in SAGIN with quantum cryptography. Therefore, in this paper, we propose the quantum-secured SAGIN which is feasible to achieve proven secure communications using quantum mechanics to protect data channels between space, air, and ground nodes. Moreover, we propose a universal QKD service provisioning framework to minimize the cost of QKD services under the uncertainty and dynamics of communications in quantumsecured SAGIN. In this framework, fiber-based QKD services are deployed in passive optical networks with the advantages of low loss and high stability. Moreover, the widely covered and flexible satellite-and UAV-based QKD services are provisioned as a supplement during the real-time data transmission phase. Finally, to examine the effectiveness of the proposed concept and framework, a case study of quantum-secured SAGIN in the Metaverse is conducted where uncertain and dynamic factors of the secure communications in Metaverse applications are effectively resolved in the proposed framework.

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“…In recent decades, QKD has been widely studied and has achieved remarkable progress because it ensures the confidentiality and security of the communication process [2]. According to the coding dimension of transmitted information, QKD could be divided into the discrete variable QKD (DV-QKD) [3,4] and the continuous-variable QKD (CV-QKD) [5][6][7][8]. The former encodes information in discrete variables, such as the polarization or phase of a single photon, and it has relatively mature development, coupled with a farther communication distance.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Deep Neural Network Based Reconciliation for CV-QKD

et al. 2022

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High-speed reconciliation is indispensable for supporting the continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) system to generate the secure key in real-time. However, the error correction process’s high complexity and low processing speed limit the reconciliation speed. Therefore, reconciliation has also become the bottleneck of system performance. In this paper, we proposed a high-speed reconciliation scheme that uses the deep neural network to optimize the decoding process of the low-density parity-check (LDPC) code. We first introduced a network structure of decoding implementation based on the deep neural network, which can be applied to decoding algorithms of parallel strategy and significantly reduce the decoding complexity. Subsequently, we proposed two improved decoding algorithms based on this structure, named linear fitting algorithm and deep neural network-assisted decoding algorithm. Finally, we introduced a high-speed reconciliation scheme based on the CPU-GPU hybrid platform. Simulation results show that the proposed reconciliation scheme reduces the complexity and enables us to realize the high-speed CV-QKD system. Furthermore, the improved decoding algorithm can also reduce the FER, thereby increasing the secret key rate.

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The Evolution of Quantum Key Distribution Networks: On the Road to the Qinternet

Cited by 140 publications

References 545 publications

Quantum Internet Protocol Stack: a Comprehensive Survey

Quantum Internet Protocol Stack: a Comprehensive Survey

Quantum-Secured Space-Air-Ground Integrated Networks: Concept, Framework, and Case Study

Deep Neural Network Based Reconciliation for CV-QKD

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