The Effects of Smoking on the Diagnostic Characteristics of Metabolic Syndrome: A Review

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome is a growing epidemic that increases the risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, and mortality. It is diagnosed by the presence of three or more of the following risk factors: 1) obesity, with an emphasis on central adiposity, 2) high blood pressure, 3) hyperglycemia, 4) dyslipidemia, with regard to reduced high-density lipoprotein concentrations, and 5) dyslipidemia, with regard to elevated triglycerides. Smoking is one lifestyle factor that can increase the risk for metabolic syndrome as it has been shown to exert negative effects on abdominal obesity, blood pressure, blood glucose concentrations, and blood lipid profiles. Smoking may also negatively affect other factors that influence glucose and lipid metabolism including lipoprotein lipase, adiponectin, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Some of these smoking-related outcomes may be reversed with smoking cessation, thus reducing the risk for metabolic disease; however, metabolic syndrome risk may initially increase post cessation, possibly due to weight gain. Therefore, these findings warrant the need for more research on the development and efficacy of smoking prevention and cessation programs.

An interpretable machine learning model of cross-sectional U.S. county-level obesity prevalence using explainable artificial intelligence

“…The accumulated local effects plot showed a weak linear relationship, yet still showing higher prevalence of adult smoking linked to higher prevalence of obesity. The association between higher smoking prevalence and obesity is consistent with evidence that heavy cigarette smoking is associated with higher visceral adiposity and a greater risk of obesity compared to light smokers [24,25].…”

Sleep Quality, Nutrient Intake, and Social Development Index Predict Metabolic Syndrome in the Tlalpan 2020 Cohort: A Machine Learning and Synthetic Data Study

“…In the same way, ex-smokers and current smokers (EXSMOKER, SMOKING) were found to be relevant features; based on this, it has been observed that both smokers and former smokers are predisposed to MetS. This finding is supported by various studies that suggest that smoking can have an adverse impact on blood lipid levels and lead to metabolic disturbances [ 79 , 80 , 81 ].…”