“…For instance, there is accumulating evidence that learners with low levels of prior knowledge in comparison to learners with more favorable learning prerequisites have more difficulties in navigating hypermedia systems (e.g., Kelly, 1993;Last, O'Donnell, & Kelly, 2001;Lawless & Kulikowich, 1996;McDonald & Stevenson, 1998a;Mills, Paper, Lawless, & Kulikowich, 2002), apply superficial processing strategies (Chen & Ford,1998), produce worse learning outcomes (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Jetton, 1994;Kraus, Reed, & Fitzgerald, 2001;Lawless & Brown, 1997;Lee & Lee, 1991;Niederhauser, Reynolds, Salmen, & Skolmoski, 2000;Potelle & Rouet, 2003;Shin, Schallert, & Savenye, 1994;Shyu & Brown, 1992, and require more instructional support (Barab, Bowdish, & Lawless, 1997;Calisir & Gurel, 2003;de Jong & van der Hulst, 2002;McDonald & Stevenson, 1998a, b;Potelle & Rouet, 2003;Shapiro, 1999;Shin et al, 1994). A comprehensive overview on the different studies investigating the relationship between prior knowledge and hypermedia effectiveness is provided by Chen, Fan, and Macredie (2006).…”