The effect of trauma proximity and ruminative response styles on posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth following a university shooting.

Abstract

Objective: Shootings in academic settings are associated with the development of both posttraumatic growth (PTG) and posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms (Bardeen, Kumpula, & Orcutt, 2013). Traumatic events can challenge an individual's cognitive framework and contribute to the development of PTS and PTG. Intrusive rumination is thought to increase vulnerability to PTS symptoms, whereas deliberate rumination is likely to be associated with PTG. Literature that serves to distinguish the contextual and intraindividual predictors differentially leading to the development of PTS and PTG symptoms is limited. This cross-sectional study examined the relations between trauma proximity and posttraumatic outcomes as mediated by deliberate and intrusive ruminative responses to a university shooting. We hypothesize that (a) physical and emotional proximity would exert distinct effects on posttraumatic outcomes, (b) the effects of proximity on PTS would be mediated by intrusive rumination, and (c) the effects of proximity on PTG would be mediated by deliberate rumination. Method: Three hundred and eighty-five students, faculty, and staff who were exposed to a university campus shooting completed a series of questionnaires 4 months after the event. Results: Emotional proximity was associated with PTS and PTG, whereas physical proximity was only associated with PTS. Of our four hypothesized mediation relationships, intrusive rumination mediated the relationship between physical proximity and PTS, and deliberate rumination mediated the relationship between emotional proximity and PTG. Conclusions: These results suggest that physical and emotional proximity to a traumatic event uniquely contribute to the development of posttraumatic outcomes and that intrusive rumination promotes maladaptive outcomes, whereas deliberate rumination may promote adaptive outcomes. Clinical Impact StatementThe present study suggests that those who are physically close to a trauma event may experience more unwanted thoughts about the event, predicting more posttraumatic stress symptoms. Although those who are emotionally close to a traumatic event are predicted to also develop more posttraumatic stress symptoms, using intentional reflection on the event can lead to posttraumatic growth, a sense of deeper meaning or realignment with values. These results suggest that physical and emotional proximity to a traumatic event exert unique influences on posttraumatic outcomes and that interventions targeting ruminative styles may be useful in promoting greater mental health.

Profiles of grief, post-traumatic stress, and post-traumatic growth among people bereaved due to COVID-19

“…Caution needs to be taken when evaluating such a finding since the present study only involved 14 participants (out of 422) with the latter attribution. The finding may be explained by proximity; an early study among mass university shooting victims showed that higher proximity predicted more intense posttraumatic symptoms as well as more PTG (Wozniak, Caudle, Harding, Vieselmeyer, & Mezulis, 2020). Accordingly, those who believed that COVID-19 was the fundamental cause of death of their loved ones may have higher emotional proximity towards COVID-19, so that they had experienced higher symptoms and growth.…”

Exploring the impact of COVID-19-related fear, obsessions, anxiety and stress on psychological well-being among adults in Pakistan

“…Prior researches have established that rumination may jeopardize mental health and therefore intensify negative moods, together with depression (Chesnut et al , 2020; Bravo et al , 2019; Genet and Siemer, 2012). Furthermore, intrusive rumination can generate post-traumatic stress disorder as soon as a person is confronted with a traumatic experience thus compromising mental health (Wozniak et al , 2019).…”

Coping Strategies in the Spanish Population: The Role in Consequences of COVID-19 on Mental Health

“…Studies have demonstrated that effective coping strategies can protect people from mental illness when faced with adverse situations ( 5 , 8 – 10 ). And the opposite is observed with maladaptive coping strategies, which influence their mental health predisposing them to alterations such as depression and anxiety ( 6 , 11 – 15 ), so repercussions on well-being depend on the type of coping used ( 3 , 16 ).…”