The effect of salt usage behavior on sodium intake and excretion among Korean women

Abstract

This study was done to explore the effect of Korean women's salt usage behavior on their sodium intake and excretion according to aging. Dietary sodium intake and salt usage behavior were analyzed to compare the difference between young and middle-aged women. One hundred fifty six young women and 77 middle-aged women without hypertension or any current medication were recruited. Body mass index, waist hip ratio, blood pressure were measured from each subject. Salt usage behaviors were surveyed with questionnaire, sodium intake with 24-hr recall method, and sodium excretion with spot urine. Middle-aged women were more obese than young women according to body mass index and waist hip ratio. Blood pressure was significantly higher for the middle-aged. Young women consumed more fats and middle-aged women more carbohydrates. Middle-aged women consumed more sodium and potassium, and excreted more sodium. Among questionnaire items, kimchi, soup or pot stew, or salted vegetables were found to be related with high sodium diet. Salted vegetables and salted nuts and potato chips were significantly correlated with young women's high sodium diet, while soy sauce on fried food, kimchi, salted vegetables accounted for middle-aged women's high sodium diet. With these results, we concluded that middle-aged women consumed more carbohydrates, less fat, and more sodium and potassium than young women. Middle-aged women frequently choose kimchi, soup or pot stew, or salted vegetables, and they contribute to high sodium intake. We recommend to choose low-salt kimchi, less soup or pot stew, and more fresh vegetables for lower sodium diet.

Dietary and Health Characteristics of Korean Adults According to the Level of Energy Intake from Carbohydrate: Analysis of the 7th (2016–2017) Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data

“…However, the link between carbohydrate intake and hypertension or impaired fasting glucose was unclear [8,9,11,14,38]. Being hypertensive with high carbohydrate intake in our results may be associated with high sodium intake by fermented vegetable in Koreans' traditional carbohydrate-rich diet or kidney related mechanisms by insufficient vitamin A consumption, not with carbohydrate intakes themselves [39,40]. We did not find the association between carbohydrate intake and obesity, hypercholesterolemia or metabolic syndrome.…”

Readiness for behavioral change of discretionary salt intake among women in Tehran, Iran

“…Over 60% of salt intake in Tehran is the salt added in cooking or at the table [13]. Also, it is difficult to precisely measure salt intake [6, 47]. Therefore, in order to prevent the recall bias and since self-reported avoidance of salt intake has a high correlation with the actual behavior [48], the habit of adding salt in cooking and at the table was questioned.…”

Salty taste thresholds and preference in patients with chronic kidney disease according to disease stage: A cross‐sectional study

“…To assess salt usage behaviours, we used a modified version of the salt usage behaviour questionnaire described by Kim et al . and Lee et al . We chose four items that showed positive correlations with the mean spot urine sodium in our pilot study, two items on salt intake habits and two items on high‐salt food consumption.…”

“…To assess salt usage behaviours, we used a modified version of the salt usage behaviour questionnaire described by Kim et al 19 and Lee et al 20 We chose four items that showed positive correlations with the mean spot urine sodium in our pilot study, two items on salt intake habits and two items on high-salt food consumption. Subjects scored the following statements on a 5-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating higher salt consumption: (i) typical salt content of food eaten (very salty = 5, a little salty = 4, moderately salty = 3, little salty = 2, not salty = 1), (ii) frequency of adding salt or soy sauce to cooked dishes (always = 5, frequently = 4, usually = 3, seldom = 2, never = 1), (iii) frequency of eating kimchi or salted vegetables (more than 3 times a day = 5, 1-2 times a day = 4, 3-6 times a week = 3, 2-8 times a month = 2, less than once a month = 1) and (iv) frequency of eating soups or stews (more than 3 times a day = 5, 1-2 times a day = 4, 3-6 times a week = 3, 2-8 times a month = 2, less than once a month = 1).…”