The Drive for Muscularity and Masculinity: Testing the Associations Among Gender-Role Traits, Behaviors, Attitudes, and Conflict.

Abstract

Prior qualitative research has suggested that people assume muscular men are more masculine. This assumption was tested quantitatively in 2 studies. In Study 1, men and women completed measures of gender-role traits and behaviors, whereas in Study 2, men completed measures of gender-role conflict and traditional attitudes about men. Study 1 revealed a correlation between self-rated male-typed traits and behaviors, with a need to be more muscular for both men and women. In Study 2, men with more traditional attitudes about men also wanted to be more muscular; men who wanted to be more muscular were experiencing conflict with regard to society's expectations that they be successful, powerful, and competitive, and they reported that finding a balance between work and leisure is difficult.

Media internalization and conformity to traditional masculine norms in relation to body image concerns among men

“…A motivation underlying body image concerns is the desire for a particular body shape, and the body shape that men regularly desire involves muscularity (Cafri et al, 2005;McCreary et al, 2005). This desire for a muscular body is referred to as 'Drive for Muscularity' (DM), and is described as a preoccupation with attaining large muscles concentrated on one's upper body (McCreary, Sasse, Saucier, & Dorsch, 2004).…”

“…Studies have shown that men's desire to be more muscular is closely associated with male gender role norms, particularly involving masculinity (Hunt, Gonsalkorale, & Murray, 2013;Mahalik et al, 2003;McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005). To assess men's conformity to masculine gender roles, Mahalik and colleagues (2003) developed specific conformity to masculine norms (CMN) subscales, and found that the Winning norm subscale, which assesses the drive to win (e.g., In general, I will do anything to win") was uniquely associated with DM.…”

“…In order to better understand the nature of different body image concerns in men, researchers have begun to examine how they are shaped by sociocultural factors, such as male gender role norms (McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005) and the internalization of body ideals in the media (Diedrichs, 2012). Male gender role norms are important because they reflect and reinforce social and cultural expectations for men to conform to particular behaviors and attitudes (Levant, 2011;Thompson & Pleck, 1986).…”

Biopsychosocial Model of Dietary Restraint in Early Adolescent Boys

“…Social weight pressures from family members, peers, and the media increases boys' (a) awareness of their appearance as it relates to gender-norms of masculinity (McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005), (b) investment in societal appearance norms (Gulas & McKeage 2000), (c) concerns about the adequacy of their bodies (Didie, Kuniega-Pietrazak, & Phillips, 2010), and (d) motivation to reduce discrepancies between their appearance and the societal ideal (Higgins, 1987;Maner, DeWall, Baumeister, & Schaller, 2007). These messages and pressures shape boys' views of their bodies, increase the likelihood of their internalizing societal appearance standards and becoming dissatisfied with their body size and shape, and elevate their risk for restricting their caloric intake in hopes of achieving the lean body ideal .…”

181. Gender Expression Associated With BMI in a Prospective Cohort Study of U.S. Adolescents

“…For instance, adolescent girls have been found to be more likely than boys to restrict their diets (54% girls, 24% boys), use diet products (10% girls, 4% boys), purge (8% girls, 3% boys), and engage in weight-control-motivated exercising (67% girls, 47% boys). 5 In line with societal masculinity norms, men who endorse high levels of drive for muscularity also express high desire to gain weight in muscle, 6 and, unlike adolescent girls, boys report elevated body dissatisfaction at low BMIs. 7,8 Previous research in other health domains has found differences by gender expression --that is, the degree to which one presents oneself in a way consistent with culturally defined expressions of masculine or feminine --in problem drinking 9 and violence perpetration.…”