The direct and indirect impact of trauma types and cumulative stressors and traumas on executive functions

Abstract

The goal was to measure the effects of trauma types, cumulative trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), existential annihilation anxiety (EAA), and posttraumatic growth (PTG) on executive functions. The study sample consists of 1155 from Egypt and Kuwait. Measures included adults working memory deficits (WMD) and inhibition deficits (ID), and cumulative stressors and traumas (CST) and trauma types, PTSD, EAA, and PTG. We used Stepwise regression and PROCESS macro to analyze the data. Results indicated that survival and cumulative traumas have direct effects on a lower WMD and ID, attachment traumas and gender discrimination by parents have direct impacts on higher WMD and ID, while personal identity, status identity, secondary trauma, gender discrimination by society, community violence do not have any direct effects on WMD or ID. All traumas have indirect effects on higher WMD or/and ID via PTSD. Gender discrimination by society, community violence, and CST has an additional indirect higher impact on WMD and ID via EAA. There were indirect trajectories from survival trauma, personal identity, status identity trauma, secondary trauma, gender discrimination by society, and CST on lower WMD or/and ID via PTG. Attachment trauma, gender discrimination by parents, perpetration traumas, and community violence were not associated with PTG and its trajectories of lower WMD or/and ID. We discussed the research and clinical implication for these results.

The Effects of COVID-19 Traumatic Stress on Executive Functions: The Case of Syrian Refugees in Turkey

“…COVID-19 continuous traumatic stress is severe enough to predict a direct effect on working memory and inhibition deficits in addition to its indirect effects on them via depression and PTSD. A recent study found that only severe traumas such as type III trauma and attachment disruptions have direct negative effects on executive functions while the effects of all other trauma types are mostly indirect via their mental health impact (Kira, Shuwiekh, Al-Huwailah, Elwakeel, et al, 2020). However, while COVID-19 is still ongoing, it can get controlled, at a certain point, maybe in a year or two, and the crisis experience of COVID-19 may change over time, and became a story of the past like other pandemics in history, but till then, it is ongoing type III trauma that has a direct and indirect impact on working memory and inhibition deficits, in addition to its mental health, economic and social impact.…”

“…Such an approach does not inform us if this relationship is due to the direct impact of the trauma or its indirect outcome through its mental health impact (the mental health outcome of trauma, such as PTSD, depression, or other mental health disorders. Kira, Shuwiekh, Al-Huwailah, Elwakeel, et al (2020), findings' indicated that only the severe trauma types such as gender discrimination by parents (a type III ongoing trauma, and attachment disruptions) have a direct impact on impaired executive function deficits in addition to its indirect effects; While all other trauma types' potential negative effects on executive functions are indirect via their mental health outcome.…”

The Development-Based Taxonomy of Stressors and Traumas: An Initial Empirical Validation

“…The research found that ethnic discrimination is a risk factor for psychotic disorders (Bardol et al, 2020). Discrimination's negative impacts on cognition in different age groups are well documented (e.g., Díaz-Venegas et al, 2016;Zahodne et al, 2021;Kira et al, 2020d).…”

“…Type III traumas have subtypes or variants that fall under the broader umbrella term of type III trauma, varying in III-a) and COVID-19 (type III-e) intersection Kira et al, 2021c;Solomon & Heide, 1999;Terr, 1995). The macro-dynamics of intersection, polyvictimization, accumulation, and proliferation, and the interaction among preidentity, identity, and post-identity stressors and traumas determine their total health, mental health, and cognitive impact from a life-course perspective (e.g., Kira et al, 2012aKira et al, , 2012cKira et al, , 2012dKira et al, , 2014aKira et al, , 2014bKira et al, , 2018aKira et al, , 2019aKira et al, , 2019bKira et al, , 2019dKira et al, , 2020dKira, Barger et al, 2019, 2020.…”

Mental Health Dynamics of Interfaith Spirituality in Believers and Non-Believers: The Two Circuit Pathways Model of Coping with Adversities: Interfaith Spirituality and Will-to Exist, Live and Survive

“…CTS-S has also shown divergent validity: It was significantly negatively correlated with sociocultural adjustment (r = −.25, p < .001) and futuristic orientation (r = −.37, p < .001). CTS-S has been used with a variety of clinical and community samples of adults and adolescents from numerous sociocultural groups and has been shown to possess adequate reliability (with an alpha ranging between .80 and .92), good construct validity e.g., (Kira et al, 2008a, Kira et al, 2012bKira et al, 2010;Kira et al, 2020c), and validity across different cultural and clinical groups, including American Indians, Mayans, Palestinians, Egyptians, refugees, and torture survivors from 32 countries e.g., (Kira et al, 2013d;Kira et al, 2013c;Kira et al, 2014c;Kira et al, 2010). The measure has been used in several studies as a comprehensive measure of stress and trauma e.g., (Eltan, 2019;Gillespie & Gates, 2013;Head et al, 2012;Millender, 2013;Omidy, 2012;Rizeq et al, 2018), and has been found to have good reliability and predictive validity.…”