The Cultural Number Line: A Review of Cultural and Linguistic Influences on the Development of Number Processing

Abstract

Approximate processing of numerosities is a universal and preverbal skill, while exact number processing above 4 involves the use of culturally acquired number words and symbols. The authors first review core concepts of numerical cognition, including number representation in the brain and the influential view that numbers are associated with space along a "mental number line." Then, they discuss how cultural influences, such as reading direction, finger counting, and the transparency of the number word system, can influence the representation and processing of numbers. Spatial mapping of numbers emerges as a universal cognitive strategy. The authors trace the impact of cultural factors on the development of number skills and conclude that a cross-cultural perspective can reveal important constraints on numerical cognition."The standard horizontal number line is clearly a product of culture, as it depends on culture-specific conventions of a written numeral system. But it also depends on three innate faculties: our number sense, our sense of the space around us, and the visual imagery system. The representations of our number sense are mapped onto a horizontal line (or arranged in a row) to form an integrated system of numerical representations in the imagery system; when activated, the resulting image is integrated into the representation of egocentric space. So here we have an example of a basic resource of human intelligence that is the product of an interaction between cultural and innate endowments."Numbers are ubiquitous-among other things, they specify times, locations, and wealth; in industrialized countries people process numbers to plan their day, find their way, and calculate their pay, and in more remote places people often use numerosity to keep track of livestock, children, and food. Rarely do we stop to think what an amazing achievement these numerical skills constitute. Only a few hundred years ago a large percentage of the world's population was virtually innumerate and only a minority could deal with exact numbers and perform arithmetic tasks (Ifrah, 1998). Everyday numeracy is an impressive cultural achievement that has shaped how we think about numbers and numerosities in many ways. We learn number processing, and in particular arithmetic and higher mathematical skills, through formal instruction. Differences in numerical experiences between cultures provide us with an opportunity to understand the relationship between culture, cognitive development, education, and human cognition more generally and the influence of cultural factors on the mental representation of numbers in particular. The present article describes this multifaceted relationship.

Development of spatial preferences for counting and picture naming

“…The observation that children commonly learn to count with their fingers suggests that finger counting habits might be a developmental precursor of SNARC. Finger counting is not only an ancient method used to contend with number and numerosities (William & Williams, 1995), but it is also widespread across cultures (Bender & Beller, 2012;Flegg, 1989;Göbel et al, 2011). For example, Lindemann, Alipour, and Fischer (2011) used an internet questionnaire to document a clear preference among adults from several Western countries to start counting on the left hand, consistent with the idea that their association between small numbers and left space might be a reflection of early acquired counting preferences.…”

“…It has been proposed that this culture-specific generalization eventually leads to a spatial representation of numbers on a mental number line (MNL; cf. Bachot, Gevers, Fias, & Roeyers, 2005;Berch, Foley, Hill, & Ryan, 1999;van Galen, & Reitsma, 2008;White, Sz} ucs, & Soltész, 2012; for a recent review see Göbel, Shaki, & Fischer, 2011). Previous studies have provided snapshots of this hypothesized enculturation from various cultures and from different age groups who were tested on a range of tasks.…”

Is the SNARC Effect Related to the Level of Mathematics? No Systematic Relationship Observed despite More Power, More Repetitions, and More Direct Assessment of Arithmetic Skill

“…Previous results about SNARC effects in skilled and nonskilled participants Different factors have been proposed to cause this variability in the SNARC effect (e.g., Lindemann, Alipour, & Fischer, 2011;Shaki, Fischer, & Petrusic, 2009, for recent suggestions and data; Göbel, Shaki, & Fischer, 2011, for a recent review). Among others, a potential factor influencing the magnitude of the SNARC effect is the level of competence in maths.…”

Exploring the numerical mind by eye-tracking: a special issue

“…Culture, and in particular written language, plays an important role in shaping the spatial representation of ordered dimensions such as numbers (e.g., Göbel, 2015;Göbel, Shaki, & Fischer, 2011). It has been shown already in the seminal paper by Dehaene et al (1993) that adults from a right-to-left reading culture had a smaller or even reversed SNARC effect compared to adults from Western cultures.…”