The biomechanics of running and running styles: a synthesis

Abstract

Running movements are parametrised using a wide variety of devices. Misleading interpretations can be avoided if the interdependencies and redundancies between biomechanical parameters are taken into account. In this synthetic review, commonly measured running parameters are discussed in relation to each other, culminating in a concise, yet comprehensive description of the full spectrum of running styles. Since the goal of running movements is to transport the body centre of mass (BCoM), and the BCoM trajectory can be derived from spatiotemporal parameters, we anticipate that different running styles are reflected in those spatiotemporal parameters. To this end, this review focuses on spatiotemporal parameters and their relationships with speed, ground reaction force and whole-body kinematics. Based on this evaluation, we submit that the full spectrum of running styles can be described by only two parameters, namely the step frequency and the duty factor (the ratio of stance time and stride time) as assessed at a given speed. These key parameters led to the conceptualisation of a so-called Dual-axis framework. This framework allows categorisation of distinctive running styles (coined 'Stick', 'Bounce', 'Push', 'Hop', and 'Sit') and provides a practical overview to guide future measurement and interpretation of running biomechanics.

Reliability and Validity of Running Cadence and Stance Time Derived from Instrumented Wireless Earbuds

“…The main purpose of the present study was to assess the test–retest reliability, face validity and concurrent validity of running gait parameters derived from accelerometer data collected with the instrumented earbuds of Dopple B.V., and thus, to extend the findings regarding the use of ear-worn sensors in walking [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ] to running. We focused on cadence and stance time, as recent literature proposed that the combination of these gait parameters can be used to describe running technique [ 35 ]. Cadence and stance time were derived from concurrent earbud and force-plate data for a range of running speeds.…”

“…Cadence and stance time were derived from concurrent earbud and force-plate data for a range of running speeds. We assessed their test–retest reliability for both measurement methods, their face validity in terms of changes in to-be-expected directions with increasing running speed (i.e., higher cadence and shorter stance times [ 35 ]), and concurrent validity in terms of their agreement between both measurement methods. In addition, we looked at the between-methods agreement of the derived gait parameters when participants performed incidental head movements upon instruction while running at a comfortable running speed.…”

Characterising initial sprint acceleration strategies using a whole-body kinematics approach

“…From the spatiotemporal variables, two additional variables -step length/step rate and contact time/flight time ratios (hereafter referred to as length/rate and contact/flight ratios) -were calculated as a measure of each participant's whole-body kinematic strategy. These ratios provide more sufficient information than step length and step rate alone, and have recently been used to categorise distinctive running styles to guide future measurement and interpretation (Van Oeveren et al, 2021), although whether this approach can be applied to initial acceleration is not known.…”

Biomechanics of running: An overview on gait cycle

“…Vx=SL/SF (Equation 2) [17] Stride and step frequency is the rate of completing the stride and step. SF is simply a conversion of step time (tstep); step time (tstep) is addition of stance time (tstance) and flight time (tflight) which can be calculated as SF = 60/(tstance + tflight) (Equation 3) where, SF=60/tstep and tstep=tstance+tflight [17]. It's also depends on speed of muscle contraction and the skill of running.…”

“…Running biomechanics can be analyzed by upper and lower limb anatomy. In the running, upper body (head, arms and upper trunk) and lower body (lower trunk and legs) move in contrary directions in the longitudinal axis with contrary angular movement [17,32]. Almost all the muscle in the lower extremity is used in running.…”