The Betalain Secondary Metabolic Network

Hatlestad, Gregory J.; Lloyd, A. C.

doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-2356-4_6

Cited by 7 publications

(4 citation statements)

References 41 publications

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“…Pigmentation represents an attractive model for such studies, changes in color being easy to score visually, and providing a genetic network under the control of external factors [69][70][71]. In plants, the R2R3-MYBs play a central role in regulating the spatio-temporal expression pattern of the genes involved in synthesis and accumulation of pigments, such as anthocyanins [72], condensed tannins [73], betalains [74], and copigment flavonols [75], which are the main players in determining pigmentation patterns.…”

Section: Anthocyanin Pigmentation Is An Extremely Variable Trait Amonmentioning

confidence: 99%

Target-Genes Reveal Species and Genotypic Specificity of Anthocyanin Pigmentation in Citrus and Related Genera

Catalano

Ciacciulli

Salonia

et al. 2020

Genes

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Background: Anthocyanin pigmentation characterizes a number of tissues of Citrus and its relatives. The gain and loss of pigmentation is intriguing and is inherited variously among species. Methods: Citrus germplasm was used to investigate the anthocyanin pigmentation of tissues never before considered, including stamen, style and stigma, and of young leaves, petals, rind and flesh of 28 genotypes belonging to 14 species. Citrus genotypes encompassed citron, lemon, sweet orange, lime, and Citrus relatives included Microcitrus, Murraya, and Severinia. A relative qRT-PCR analysis was carried out on the structural and regulatory genes: phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase (CHI), flavanone 3′-hydroxylase (F3H), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase (ANS), uridine diphosphate glucose flavonoid glucosyl-transferase (UFGT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), Ruby and Noemi. Image analysis and a genomic approach were employed to evaluate how the red pigmentation is inherited among tissues and species. Results: Pigmentation of young leaves and petals is specific to citron and its hybrids. Ruby controls the pigmentation of petals, but not of leaves. The red color of the rind and flesh is a trait that particularly characterizes a diversity of sweet oranges, citron hybrids and Citrus relatives. Color expression depends on external factors and also on developmental stage. The coloration of stamen and style is citron-specific, while a red stigma is exclusive to Moro orange and its hybrids. Conclusion: It is hypothesized that there is a relationship among Citrus species and genes controlling anthocyanin pigmentation.

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Section: Anthocyanin Pigmentation Is An Extremely Variable Trait Amonmentioning

confidence: 99%

Target-Genes Reveal Species and Genotypic Specificity of Anthocyanin Pigmentation in Citrus and Related Genera

Catalano

Ciacciulli

Salonia

et al. 2020

Genes

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“…However, they produce betalains, which are produced by very different biosynthetic pathways, but which are considered to be a substitute for anthocyanins. Like anthocyanins, betalains evidently: 1) are produced in response to many sources of stress (e.g., UV light, drought stress, salt stress, cold temperatures, and pathogens); 2) reduce the light available for photosynthesis; and 3) participate in defense against herbivory (Steyn et al, 2002;Berardi et al, 2013;Hatlestad and Lloyd, 2015;Jain and Gould, 2015;Miguel, 2018;Polturak and Aharoni, 2018).…”

Section: Paradoxmentioning

confidence: 99%

Numerous Paradoxes Explained by Bandwagoning

Solon¹

2019

Preprint

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Background: Solon (2019) introduced genetic bandwagoning in a very general sense: A variant sequentially 1) evaluates its holder’s quality and 2) induces its holder to relinquish resources if the holder’s quality is low. Here, I introduce a more complex form of bandwagoning in order to account for a series of phenomena considered “paradoxical” by scientists specializing in their literatures: a) depression, b) differential nurturing, c) honest signaling of quality, d) reproductive suppression, e) stress-induced anthocyanins, and f) hormesis. These literatures are characterized by the following findings: 1) Low-quality individuals incur a cost against reproductive success compared to higher-quality individuals. 2) Individuals not (yet) identified as low-quality incur a cost against their ability to survive predators and/or parasites compared to individuals that have already been identified as low-quality. 3) Females incur a cost against reproductive success compared to males. 4) Males incur a cost against their ability to survive predators and/or parasites compared to females. 5) If conditions are challenging, individuals gain in both reproductive success and their ability to survive predators and/or parasites compared to less challenging conditions; however, too-challenging conditions detract from both. For each literature, at least one of these findings is unaccommodated by existing theory when considered in the context of that literature. Despite existing theory, these patterns are remarkably persistent. Question: Can paradoxes fitting these patterns be explained by genetic bandwagoning theory? Conclusion: Here, reservation is introduced as a form of bandwagoning in which a bandwagoning variant induces its holder to reserve from (i.e., withhold) some of its ability to survive parasites or predators. Reservation would occur for the purpose of assessing a holder’s quality when conditions are sufficiently unchallenging that few individuals are chronically stressed, so it is otherwise difficult to evaluate a holder’s quality. If the holder is subsequently killed, wounded, or infected, then it is identified as lacking the quality that would allow its descendants to survive more challenging conditions. The holder loses some or all of its resources as a direct consequence of the very death, wounding, or infection that identified its low quality. That is, in reservation, the two steps of bandwagoning are accomplished simultaneously. (This way of bandwagoning is distinguished from when the two steps are accomplished sequentially, which is termed resonation.) Reservation shares numerous premises with Zahavi’s handicap principle. If conditions are challenging, individuals would downregulate reservation and also be less likely to forego resources through resonation (which accounts for (5)). Additionally, a bandwagoning variant would likely evolve to vary the reservation it induces from holder to holder as a hedge against the possibility that conditions suddenly turn severe before it can adjust the reservation. Individuals already identified as low-quality would downregulate reservation (which accounts for (2) above) and would instead forego resources through resonation (which accounts for (1)). Additionally, females would downregulate reservation (which accounts for (4)) and, as a consequence, surviving females are more likely than surviving males to forego resources through resonation (which accounts for (3)).

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“…Like anthocyanins, betalains are derived from the products of primary metabolism: biochemically the similarities between the two classes of pigments ends there (Brockington et al ., ; Hatlestad & Lloyd, ). Anthocyanins are synthesized from 3‐malonyl Co‐A and a derivative of phenylalanine, while betalains are synthesized from tyrosine and, in the case of the yellow betaxanthin, additional amino acids or amines.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Anthocyanin pigments play additional roles in vegetative tissues, providing protection against ultraviolet (UV), herbivores, and pathogens (Gould, ). A second group of colorful pigments, the betalains, also attract pollinators to flowers and likely also have a role in vegetative stress resistance (Hatlestad & Lloyd, ). Interestingly, these two classes of pigments have never been found in the same plant species (Stafford, ).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

To betalains and back again: a tale of two pigments

Marais

2015

New Phytologist

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The Betalain Secondary Metabolic Network

Cited by 7 publications

References 41 publications

Target-Genes Reveal Species and Genotypic Specificity of Anthocyanin Pigmentation in Citrus and Related Genera

Target-Genes Reveal Species and Genotypic Specificity of Anthocyanin Pigmentation in Citrus and Related Genera

Numerous Paradoxes Explained by Bandwagoning

To betalains and back again: a tale of two pigments

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