The Archaeometry and Archaeology of Ancient Chinese Glass: a Review

Abstract

This paper provides a new review of archaeometric research carried out on glass found in China, set in an archaeological context, from its earliest occurrence to the Song dynasty. It is set within a broad geographical context taking the terrestrial and maritime Silk Road contacts into account. We discuss chemical and isotopic compositional contrasts in glasses from different periods found in different parts of China, the glasses that were almost certainly made in China and those that were imported. A theme that runs through the paper is the problem of provenancing glass found in China, along with a lack of evidence for primary glass‐making sites and minimal evidence for secondary glass production. We discuss the glass artefacts that are of typical Chinese types and contrast these with imports; the structure reflects this contrast. We discuss potential new scientific and archaeological approaches to Chinese glass.

“16+1”: ‘Hubei Roads’ of Jingchu

“…"Needham (1962) and Caley (1962, 90) suggested that glass with high barium and lead levels found in China could have been made there because high levels of barium had never been found in ancient Western glasses." [4]; and the potash glass prevailed in the southwestern and southern regions. "The origins of Chinese Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 336 glass were first addressed by Seligman and Beck (1938).…”

“…"A few more such finds of Western glass are known from the tomb of Marquis Yi in Hubei and two more tombs from Henan." [3] "Glass first appeared in China" [4], precisely in Central China. In the collection of the Chinese Innovations heritage of the culture of Jingchu, the glass has occupied it space since the very beginning of the Zhou Dynasty (1100 -800BC) originating and developing from 'faience' and frit beads.…”

“…Therefore it is considered that "the soda-enriched faience was made in Mesopotamia or between Mesopotamia and China". "Early glass found in China is mainly in the form of beads and jewellery" [4] where "the production relied mainly on two kinds of fluxing agents: lead and potash" [3] Faience beads, dating from the middle to late Warring States Period (475-221 BC), found in the Chu tombs at Shenmingpu in Henan province and Leidugun in Hubei province after being analyzed have shown a quantity of potassium in their content, indicating the possibility of using potassium nitrate as a flux. "Potassium-rich faience glazes (currently) predate potash glasses in China; it is likely that faience technology influenced and led to the emergence of high-potassium glasses.…”

“…It is also likely that this was an independent invention in China, although from the 10th century BC high-potassium glasses, also with low magnesia levels, were being made in the West, probably in the southern Mediterranean area." [4] The period around 500 -400BC reveals the few early finds of potassium alkali glass from the regions of Central China, while the Warriors States and Han Period (400 -200BC) is the period of the lead-barium glass characteristic for China Yangzi River valleys, where is considered have been probably made in Central China; as well has been found in Xinjiang, Central China, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shaanxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian and Chongqing provinces, although large numbers of the Warring States lead-barium glasses have occurred in the State of Chu, mainly in Hubei and Hunan, where is supposed that have been its main production zone. On the other hand from this period in Jiiangsu province, in the tomb of a Western Han princess have been fund lead-barium glass B disks and chimneys, where is supposed that have been the second production zone; "results for 12 lead-barium glass B discs and eye beads from Chu tombs in Hunan province could suggest that they were made in Hunan province".…”

“…On the other hand from this period in Jiiangsu province, in the tomb of a Western Han princess have been fund lead-barium glass B disks and chimneys, where is supposed that have been the second production zone; "results for 12 lead-barium glass B discs and eye beads from Chu tombs in Hunan province could suggest that they were made in Hunan province". Considering the fact that "no primary or secondary glass production sites for leadbarium glasses have been recorded" [4] the curiosity of their exact provenance still remains an open question.…”