The 2018 reawakening and eruption dynamics of Steamboat Geyser, the world’s tallest active geyser

Reed, Mara H.; Muñoz-Sáez, Carolina; Hajimirza, Sahand; Wu, Sin‐Mei; Barth, Anna; Girona, Társilo; Rasht‐Behesht, Majid; White, Erin; Karplus, M. S.; Hurwitz, Shaul; Manga, M.

doi:10.1073/pnas.2020943118

Cited by 28 publications

(43 citation statements)

References 71 publications

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“…The subsurface conduit configuration required to produce a geyser is not completely understood, but recent works indicate that a laterally offset bubble trap may be an important component (Belousov et al, 2013;Vandemeulebrouck et al, 2013). While the reservoir depth might control the eruption height (Reed et al, 2021), the exact geometry, depth or number of bubble traps is difficult to constrain without comprehensive geophysical surveys.A small percentage of the geysers worldwide erupt in regular intervals passing from the end of one eruption to the end of the next one through an eruptive cycle (Wang & Manga, 2010). Eruptive cycles of geysers…”

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confidence: 99%

Eruptive Cycle and Bubble Trap of Strokkur Geyser, Iceland

et al. 2021

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The eruption frequency of geysers can be studied easily on the surface. However, details of the internal structure including possible water and gas filled chambers feeding eruptions and the driving mechanisms often remain elusive. We used a multidisciplinary network of seismometers, video cameras, water pressure sensors and one tiltmeter to study the eruptive cycle, internal structure, and mechanisms driving the eruptive cycle of Strokkur geyser in June 2018. An eruptive cycle at Strokkur always consists of four phases: (1) Eruption, (2) post‐eruptive conduit refilling, (3) gas filling of the bubble trap, and (4) regular bubble collapse at shallow depth in the conduit. For a typical single eruption 19 ± 4 bubble collapses occur in Phase 3 and 8 ± 2 collapses in Phase 4 at a mean spacing of 1.52 ± 0.29 and 24.5 ± 5.9 s, respectively. These collapses release latent heat to the fluid in the bubble trap (Phase 3) and later to the fluid in the conduit (Phase 4). The latter eventually reaches thermodynamic conditions for an eruption. Single to sextuple eruptions have similar spacings between bubble collapses and are likely fed from the same bubble trap at 23.7 ± 4.4 m depth, 13–23 m west of the conduit. However, the duration of the eruption and recharging phase linearly increases likely due to a larger water, gas and heat loss from the system. Our tremor data provides documented evidence for a bubble trap beneath a pool geyser.

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confidence: 99%

Eruptive Cycle and Bubble Trap of Strokkur Geyser, Iceland

et al. 2021

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“…This depth might be somehow controlled by the elevation difference between Steamboat and Cistern but we cannot rule out the existence of a shallow reservoir or a bubble trap feature that enables two‐phase mixture (Vandemeulebrouck et al., 2014). Note that this 20–30 m tremor depth before eruptions is slightly deeper than the ∼20 m depth observed at Old Faithful (Wu et al., 2019), which might cause the greater heights of Steamboat eruptions (Reed et al., 2021).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 81%

“…Steamboat's major eruptions are episodic with only three major active phases recorded: in the 1960s, 1980s, and the ongoing eruptions since March 2018. The current active phase has had more than 130 eruptions to date that have been hypothesized to be associated with shallow magmatic volatile accumulation (Wicks et al., 2020) but the exact mechanism remains inconclusive (Reed et al., 2021). Sporadic eruptions did occur between active phases but most of these eruptions were not directly witnessed and only were accounted for after the fact.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park is the tallest active geyser on Earth-recorded eruption heights have exceeded 110 m since 1962 (Reed et al, 2021;White et al, 1988). In addition to the fascinating water discharge phase lasting less than an hour after the onset of an eruption, Steamboat earned its name from the roaring steam phase that could create a steam column hundreds-of-meters high above the ground and persist for days (White et al, 1988).

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confidence: 99%

“…height (Karlstrom et al, 2013;Kieffer, 1989;Reed et al, 2021). Shallow reservoirs or cavities that allow the vapor and liquid two-phase mixture to accumulate have been proposed to modulate a geyser's eruptive characteristics (i.e., preplay, minor, and major eruptions) and may be responsible for the geyser's (ir)regularity (Adelstein et al, 2014;Belousov et al, 2013;Rudolph et al, 2018;Vandemeulebrouck et al, 2014).…”

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confidence: 99%

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Imaging the Subsurface Plumbing Complex of Steamboat Geyser and Cistern Spring With Hydrothermal Tremor Migration Using Seismic Interferometry

Lin

Farrell

et al. 2021

JGR Solid Earth

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Steamboat Geyser in Yellowstone National Park is the tallest active geyser on Earth and is believed to have hydrologic connection to Cistern Spring, a hydrothermal pool ∼100 m southwest from the geyser vent. Despite broad scientific interest, rare episodic Steamboat eruptions have made it difficult to study its eruption dynamics and underground plumbing architecture. In response to the recent reactivation of Steamboat, which has produced more than 130 eruptions since March 2018, we deployed a dense seismic nodal array surrounding the enigmatic geyser in the summer of 2019. The array recorded abundant 1–5 Hz hydrothermal tremor originating from phase‐transition events within both Steamboat Geyser and Cistern Spring. To constrain the spatiotemporal distribution of the tremor sources, an interferometric‐based polarization analysis was developed. The observed tremor locations indicate that the conduit beneath Steamboat is vertical and extends down to ∼120 m depth and the plumbing of Cistern includes a shallow vertical conduit connecting with a deep, large, and laterally offset reservoir ∼60 m southeast of the surface pool. No direct connection between Steamboat and Cistern plumbing structures is found. The temporal variation of tremor combined with in situ temperature and water depth measurements of Cistern reveals interaction between Steamboat and Cistern throughout the eruption/recharge cycles. The observed delayed responses of Cistern Spring in reaction to Steamboat eruptions and recharge suggest that the two plumbing structures may be connected through a fractured/porous medium instead of a direct open channel, consistent with our inferred plumbing structure.

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Geysers

Wang¹,

Manga²

2021

Lecture Notes in Earth System Sciences

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Geysers, springs that intermittently erupt boiling water, appear to be especially sensitive to earthquakes. As they are a surface manifestation of geothermal systems, their response to earthquakes provides a window into how earthquakes change hydrothermal systems and processes. The most common approach to document responses to earthquakes is to identify changes in the interval between eruptions. Sustained changes in eruption intervals may be caused by changes in permeability. Confirming what processes lead to changes at geysers is hampered by limited reliable, quantitative multi-parameter data sets.

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The 2018 reawakening and eruption dynamics of Steamboat Geyser, the world’s tallest active geyser

Cited by 28 publications

References 71 publications

Eruptive Cycle and Bubble Trap of Strokkur Geyser, Iceland

Eruptive Cycle and Bubble Trap of Strokkur Geyser, Iceland

Imaging the Subsurface Plumbing Complex of Steamboat Geyser and Cistern Spring With Hydrothermal Tremor Migration Using Seismic Interferometry

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