Introduction 1 2. Characteristic p preliminaries 3 3. The test ideal 5 4. Connections with algebraic geometry 9 5. Tight closure and applications of test ideals 15 6. Test ideals for pairs (R, a t ) and applications 19 7. Generalizations of pairs: algebras of maps 23 8. Other measures of singularities in characteristic p 25 Appendix A. Canonical modules and duality 31 Appendix B. Divisors 34 Appendix C. Glossary and diagrams on types of singularities 35 References 38 . . . xIf M is any R-module, the (geometrically motivated) notation F e * M is often used to denote the corresponding R-module coming from restriction of scalars for F e . Thus, M and F e * M agree as both sets and Abelian groups. However, if F e * m denotes the element of F e * M corresponding to m ∈ M , we have r • F e * m = F e * (r p e • m) for r ∈ R and m ∈ M . It is easy to see that F e * R and R 1/p e are isomorphic R-modules by identifying F e * r with r 1/p e for each r ∈ R. While we have taken preference to the use of R 1/p e throughout, it can be very helpful to keep both perspectives in mind.Remark 2.2. We caution the reader that the module F e * M is quite different from that which is commonly denoted F e (M ) originating in [PS73]. This latter notation coincides rather with M ⊗ R F e * R considered as an R-F e * R bimodule.Exercise 2.3. Show that F e * ( ) is an exact functor on the category of R-modules. Conclude that F e * (R/I) and R 1/p e /I 1/p e are isomorphic R-modules (and (F e * R = R 1/p e )-modules) for any ideal I ⊆ R.Lemma 2.4. R 1/p e is a finitely generated R-module.1 Essentially all of the positive characteristic material in this paper can easily be generalized to the setting of reduced F -finite rings. In addition, large portions of the theory extend to the setting of excellent local rings.