Territorial hypothesis predicts the trade off between reproductive opportunities and parental care in three species of damselfishes (Pomacentridae: Actinopterygii)

Abstract

ABSTRACT. Paternal care is rare in most animals, but common in fishes, including Pomacentridae. One way of explaining it is through the territorial hypothesis, which predicts that paternal care may evolve when caring for a territory with eggs will not cost more than territories without eggs. Here we describe the reproductive behavior of three pomacentrids from São Paulo, Brazil, and evaluate if the territorial hypothesis explains their behavioral variation through five predictions. We checked if females have multiple spawns (prediction 1), if they forage more (prediction 2) and if territory defence demands more when eggs are present (prediction 3). We also described how visible eggs are (prediction 4) and how available nesting sites are (prediction 5). Chromis multilineata differed from Abudefduf saxatilis and Stegastes fuscus by not guarding the eggs, spending less time with territoriality and fanning eggs; and more time feeding and foraging. Females of the three species are iteroparous. Females' A. saxatilis and S. fuscus foraged more than males, which spent the same amount of time in territorial defence before and after eggs were delivered. These two species also have very conspicuous egg clutches on clean rock surfaces defended by them. On the other hand, males and females of C. multilineata spent the same time foraging, while territoriality took more effort after eggs were present and it spawns cryptic eggs amid Sargassum, a common and disperse micro-environment in São Paulo rocky shores. Territorial hypothesis explains why paternal care by A. saxatilis and S. fuscus lasts longer than by C. multilineata. Keywords: reproductive behavior, resource defence, rocky reef fish, behavioral ecology, sex role reversal, southwestern Atlantic.La hipótesis territorial predice la compensación entre las oportunidades reproductivas y el cuidado parental en tres especies de peces damisela (Pomacentridae: Actinopterygii) RESUMEN. El cuidado paterno es raro en la mayoría de los animales, pero común en los peces, incluyendo los Pomacentridae. Una forma de explicar este fenómeno es la hipótesis territorial, que predice que el cuidado paterno puede evolucionar cuando la protección de un territorio con huevos no cuesta más que la de territorios sin huevos. Aquí se describe el comportamiento reproductivo de tres pomacentrídios de São Paulo, Brasil, y se evalúa si la hipótesis territorial explica la variación de su comportamiento a través de cinco predicciones. Se analizó si las hembras tienen múltiples desoves (predicción 1), si forrajean más (predicción 2) y si la defensa del territorio es mayor cuando los huevos están presentes (predicción 3). También se evaluó si los huevos eran visibles (predicción 4) y cuán disponibles eran los sitios de anidación (predicción 5). Chromis multilineata difería de Abudefduf saxatilis y Stegastes fuscus por no proteger a sus huevos, dedicar menos tiempo a la territorialidad y ventilación de sus huevos, y más tiempo para la alimentación y forrajeo. Las hembras de las tres especies son iteróparas. ...

Life-history strategies of a conspicuous reef fish, the Canary damsel <em>Similiparma lurida</em> (Pomacentridae) in the northeastern Atlantic

“…This outcome suggests that the duration between gamete release and the appearance of recruits >2 cm is about 2 months. This result sounds plausible, given the fact that larval dispersion in most pomacentrids is reduced (10-24 days, Thorrold andMilicich 1990, Nemeth 2005), and that males guard fertilized eggs for only a few weeks (Thresher 1984, Asoh and Yoshikawa 2002, Bessa and Sabino 2012. Some authors have suggested that some variability in the time of recruitment may arise as a result of several spawning acts, or that larval duration varies due to environmental uncertainty (Robertson 1990, Thorrold andMilicich 1990).…”

Patterns of reef fish assemblage distribution on a Brazilian subtropical rocky shore: an approach to benthic association

“…The Pomacentridae A. saxatilis prefers substrates covered by zoanthids probably because this habitat offers a safety place for oviposition and predation avoidance. This species presents similar reproductive traits to S. fuscus such as mating in couples, demersal adhesives eggs attached to rocks, and male parental care (Bessa & Sabino 2012). Habitats with predominance of zoanthids are more structuraly complex, offering more shelter places (Ferreira et al 2004;Quadros et al 2019).…”

Integrative approach on the diversity of nesting behaviour in fishes

“…That was observed in the ocellated wrasse ( Symphodus ocellatus , Labridae), whose nesting males were less attacked than non‐nesting males (Stiver et al, 2019). Males of two southern Atlantic pomacentrids (the sergeant major ( Abudefduf saxatilis , Pomacentridae) and the dusky damselfish ( Stegastes fuscus , Pomacentridae)) holding nest sites perform much less defensive behaviours than individuals without one (Bessa & Sabino, 2012). Thus, other benefits of nesting in fish may be social rank signalling, reducing time and energy spent in agonistic contests.…”

“…Turtle‐headed sea snakes can use olfactory cues to locate nests and prey on small fish and eggs placed in large areas of coral reefs in New Caledonia (Shine et al, 2004). The purple eggs of the sergeant major Abudefduf saxatilis are easily found by predators, hence nesting males spend more time averting egg predators than Chromis multilineata (Pomacentridae), another pomacentrid that conceals eggs amid algae (Bessa & Sabino, 2012). A cooperative interaction between Stegastes fuscus damsels and the dusky grouper ( Epinephelus marginatus , Serranidae) was reported, in which the damsel benefits from sharing its territory with a grouper because this serranid feeds on egg predators attracted by the nest (Bessa, 2011).…”

“…Cladogram suggesting how the main nest types and nest functions may have evolved in bony fishes, from a more primitive ancestry of nests made of bowl and plant matter, functioning as a refuge, present in lampreys. This cladogram was organized using the previously published work of Rabosky et al (2018) and Betancur-R. et al (2013) major Abudefduf saxatilis are easily found by predators, hence nesting males spend more time averting egg predators than Chromis multilineata (Pomacentridae), another pomacentrid that conceals eggs amid algae (Bessa & Sabino, 2012). A cooperative interaction between Stegastes fuscus damsels and the dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus, Serranidae) was reported, in which the damsel benefits from sharing its territory with a grouper because this serranid feeds on egg predators attracted by the nest (Bessa, 2011).…”