Temporal associations between individual changes in hormones, training motivation and physical performance in elite and non-elite trained men

Abstract

To advance our understanding of the hormonal contribution to athletic performance, we examined the temporal associations between individual changes in testosterone (T) and/or cortisol (C) concentrations, training motivation and physical performance in elite and non-elite trained men. Two male cohorts classified as elites (n = 12) and non-elites (n = 12) completed five testing sessions over a six-week period. The athletes were tested for salivary T, C, T/C ratio, self-perceived training motivation, countermovement jump (CMJ) height and isometric mid-thigh pull peak force (IMTP PF), after which an actual training workout was performed. The elite men reported higher motivation to train and they produced greater CMJ height overall, whereas the non-elites had higher pooled T levels (p < 0.05). No significant group differences in C concentrations, T/C ratio or IMTP PF were found. The individual changes in T levels were positively associated with training motivation in the elite men only (p = 0.033), but the hormonal and motivation measures did not predict CMJ height or IMTP PF in either group. The monitoring of elite and non-elite men across a short training block revealed differences in T levels, motivation and lower-body power, which may reflect training and competitive factors in each group. Despite having lower T levels, the elite athletes showed better linkage between pre-training T fluctuations and subsequent motivation to train. The nature of the performance tests (i.e. single repetition trials) could partly explain the lack of an association with the hormonal and motivational measures.

Basal and stress‐induced salivary testosterone variation across the menstrual cycle and linkage to motivation and muscle power

“…More typically, it is the behavior of assertiveness, the quality of being self‐assured and confident without resorting to more aggressive stances. On an individual level, the fluctuations in basal sal‐T were also positively related to both motivational outputs, but with elite women presenting stronger associations, as seen in a recent study on male athletes . Speculatively, this linkage might reflect the expression of more male‐typical competitive behaviors by elite (vs non‐elite) women, which might then influence T release to reinforce such behaviors and their competitive status.…”

“…These differences must be interpreted carefully, due to large sal-T variation within the elite group (Figure 1) that could reflect other genetic, behavioral, or training factors. 1,2,32 The 2 groups did not differ in age, height, and weight, nor did they present any irregularities in menstrual cycle duration. While studies support menstrual rises in T, particularly near late follicular and early ovulation, 22,23,35 there is contention as to the interpretation of this.…”

“…This change was biased by elite females who not only possessed higher (>102%) waking and early morning sal‐T than non‐elite women, as others have reported, but also showed greater T variation. These differences must be interpreted carefully, due to large sal‐T variation within the elite group (Figure ) that could reflect other genetic, behavioral, or training factors . The 2 groups did not differ in age, height, and weight, nor did they present any irregularities in menstrual cycle duration.…”

“…20,21 Others have introduced the concept of a "critical difference", 36 whereby a sal-T difference must exceed daily variation and other sources of error to claim a biological effect. While this concept is somewhat contentious, given that daily T changes in themselves may be of some biological value, 7,32,37 it is noteworthy that the sal-T variation exhibited by the elite women across the menstrual cycle exceeded the critical difference of 90% suggested for healthy young men. 36 Two simple questions relating to one's motivation to train and compete were taken.…”

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Sports Performance

“…The ability to optimize muscle control and maximize speed, power or duration is crucial to many sports, as is training and motivation (Crewther et al, 2016). In pursuit of excellence, athletes already use holistic approaches that directly or indirectly influence the brain.…”