Basal and stress‐induced salivary testosterone variation across the menstrual cycle and linkage to motivation and muscle power

Abstract

This study investigated salivary testosterone (sal-T) variation across the menstrual cycle in female athletes, at different competitive levels, and its association with motivation and neuromuscular power. Six elite and 16 non-elite female athletes were monitored on days 7 (D7), 14 (D14), and 21 (D21) across 3 menstrual cycles for basal sal-T concentrations and self-appraised motivation to train and compete. Two further measures were taken on D7, D14, and D21 across 2 menstrual cycles: (1) the sal-T response (delta change) to a physical stress test and (2) peak power (PP) response to a 6-second cycle sprint following a post-activation potentiation (PAP) stimulus. Basal sal-T concentrations increased by 17 ± 27% from D7 to D14 before decreasing by -25 ± 43% on D21 (P < .05), but this result was biased by elite females with higher sal-T (>102%) who showed larger menstrual changes. Motivation, sal-T reactivity to stress, and the PP responses to a PAP stimulus also varied by testing day (P < .05), in parallel with basal sal-T and in favor of the elite group. Furthermore, stronger within-subject relationships (P < .001) between basal sal-T and motivation emerged in the elites (r = .70-.75) vs the non-elite group (r = .41-.50). In conclusion, menstrual cycle changes in sal-T were more obvious in high-performing female athletes with higher sal-T concentrations. This was accompanied by greater training motivation, a more pronounced sal-T response to a physical stressor and greater neuromuscular power in the elite group. These results support observations that female athletes with higher T are more represented at elite levels of performance.

Serum cortisol as a moderator of the relationship between serum testosterone and Olympic weightlifting performance in real and simulated competitions

“…Nevertheless, most weightlifters tested were competitive at a national and/or international level (i.e., elites) and enhancements of as little as 1.2% are deemed practically significant for this population [ 24 ]. By design, this study focused on serum T and C as trait variables, but these hormones also exhibit large within-subject variation that correlate to changes in training motivation [ 17 , 33 , 34 ] and muscle strength [ 15 , 35 ], particularly among well-trained or physically-stronger athletes. Speculatively, both sources of hormonal variation and their interactions may allow more flexible responses or performance adjustments among individual athletes, depending on task, situational and environmental cues.…”

“…Speculatively, both sources of hormonal variation and their interactions may allow more flexible responses or performance adjustments among individual athletes, depending on task, situational and environmental cues. Since female T levels show marked variation across the menstrual cycle, by eliteness and oral contraceptive use [ 34 , 36 ], it would be prudent to test if the moderating effect on T is similar to men, and vary across these states.…”

Individual variation in the cortisol response to a simulated Olympic weightlifting competition is related to changes in future competitive performance

“…Sex-related differences in T production and muscle strength trajectories [28, 29] are other confounds in longitudinal studies on athletes, which was partly addressed by examining percentage changes in the study outcomes. Psychological factors (e.g., motivation, self-esteem) might also predict OWL performance [35], and we were unable to control for menstrual-related T fluctuations and its impact on female motivation [21]. Conversely, the basal and exercise activation of C is unaffected by the menstrual cycle [36, 37].…”

“…One female did report using oral contraceptives, but her results were retained as they did not unduly bias any result. Given the testing format of this study (see below), we were unable to control for menstrual-phase differences between females, potentially affecting baseline T concentrations [21]. The expression of maximal strength does not appear to be influenced by menstrual phase [22, 23].…”

The Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Athletes’ Performance: A Narrative Review

“…Acute increases in testosterone can enhance physical performance via improved neural activation, muscle electrophysiological and contractile properties, and motor system function [26]. Other studies measuring basal salivary and plasma testosterone measured across multiple MC phases have revealed a peak in testosterone during the ovulatory phase [27,28] and post-exercise salivary and free testosterone were also increased in the ovulatory [27] and mid luteal phases [29]. It is unknown whether bioavailable testosterone increases during the ovulatory phase compared to other MC phases, when salivary and plasma testosterone concentration have been demonstrated to increase [27,28].…”