Taxonomy of stressors and traumas: An update of the development-based trauma framework (DBTF): A life-course perspective on stress and trauma.

Abstract

COVID-19 challenged the current paradigms of traumatic stress. Although there are diagnostic taxonomies of mental disorders such as Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, the taxonomy of stressors and traumas that contribute significantly to such disorders is lacking. The current article tried to fill parts of this gap by proposing an update and refinement of the development-based taxonomy of stressors and traumas from a life-course perspective. We discussed the different trends in defining trauma and their limitations considering the recent empirical data that provided evidence for the limited predictive validity of the current posttraumatic stress disorder model and when confronting serious real-life events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The updated taxonomy presented in this paper included preidentity (complicated birth, attachment disruptions, early childhood adversities), identity traumas (physical, personal, and social), interdependence (primary, secondary, and tertiary), and aging stressors and traumas, with the severity of stressors, is categorized on a scale from I to III. We identified 4 primary sources and pathways of these development-based stressors: intrapersonal, interpersonal, systemic, and environmental. The systemic sources are further divided into systemic “A,” including traumas perpetrated by groups, institutions, or governments, and systemic “B,” traumas such as recessions and global warming. The environmental sources and pathways are further divided into environmental “A” (physical), traumas such as earthquakes and hurricanes, and environmental “B” (biological/pathogenic), traumas such as pandemics. The macrodynamics of accumulation and proliferation and the interaction among preidentity, identity, and postidentity stressors and traumas determine their total mental health impact from a life-course perspective.

The effects of COVID-19 continuous traumatic stressors on mental health and cognitive functioning: A case example from Turkey

“…COVID-19 pandemic eluded the dominant stress and trauma platforms that only focus on past single traumas. COVID-19 traumatic stress is one form of type III continuous traumatic stressors identified in the literature (Kira, 2021) that does not fit the formula of PTSD-V criterion "A," which mainly focuses on past single trauma types. New frameworks and paradigms for traumatic stress that fit better the realities of the phenomena of real-life stressors need to be developed in an enhanced stressors and traumas platform.…”

“…Cumulative stressors and traumas scale (CTS-S-36 items; Kira et al, 2008). CST-S is based on the development-based trauma framework (DBTF) (e.g., Kira, 2001;Kira, 2019;Kira, 2021;Kira et al, 2018;Kira et al, 2019). The scale is designed to measure seven types of stressors/ traumas.…”

“…COVID-19 is continuous large-scale traumatic stressors that may continue till we achieve herd immunity. Continuous traumatic stress (CTS), a type III trauma, is the most severe traumatic stress, matched to types I and II (Kira, 2021). Type I trauma is a single traumatic event, while type II is a chain of recurrent episodes that persisted within a limited time scale and were blocked or expired.…”

“…Type I trauma is a single traumatic event, while type II is a chain of recurrent episodes that persisted within a limited time scale and were blocked or expired. Type III, the most significant in its potentially harmful impact, is the continuous traumatic stress that can happen in various longitudinal pathways (Kira, 2021;Kira et al, 2008;Kira et al, 2013, b). CTS in COVID-19 requires continuing struggle to cope.…”

Mental Health Dynamics of Interfaith Spirituality in Believers and Non-Believers: The Two Circuit Pathways Model of Coping with Adversities: Interfaith Spirituality and Will-to Exist, Live and Survive

“…The Cronbach's reliability of the scale in current data is .89.) Cumulative Stressors and Traumas Scale (CST-Short version) (Kira et al, 2008a) The Cumulative Stressors and Traumas Scale CST-S (short form) is a measure that was constructed based on the development-based trauma framework (DBTF) e.g., (Kira, 2001;Kira, 2021;Kira et al, 2013a;Kira et al, 2013b;Kira et al, 2008a;Kira et al, 2018a;Kira et al, 2020a). DBTF identifies different dimensions of individual development that may be affected by stressors and traumatic stressors (i.e., attachment, personal, collective, and role identities, and interdependence, as well as serious non-acute stressors).…”