Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are easily isolated from tissues and have the ability to self-proliferate and to differentiate along different cell lineages, such that they are commonly used in tissue regeneration. [10][11][12][13][14] Several clinical studies have shown that MSCs are safe and effective when used in tissue repair and wound healing. [15][16][17][18][19][20][21] However, despite the therapeutic efficacy of MSCs, there are significant costs and challenges associated with their therapeutic use, because they require strict monitoring of manufacturing, processing, and storage to ensure optimal viability and potency following transplantation. [22,23] Some studies have shown that stem cells transplanted into the body initially undergo significant apoptosis [24][25][26][27][28][29] and that the direct transplantation of apoptotic stem cells can have lasting effects. [30] Apoptosis plays an important role in maintaining physiological homeostasis. [31][32][33] Apoptotic vesicles (apoVs) are extracellular vesicles rich in proteins, RNA, and lipids that are released during apoptosis. [34] Their role is to mediate the transfer of substances and signal exchange between cells and thus maintain homeostasis. In a previous study, we examined the characteristics and specific markers of MSC-derived apoVs and found that proteins on the surface of apoVs regulated platelet aggregation. [35] In another study, we demonstrated the therapeutic effect of MSC-derived apoVs, including in type 2 diabetes, through their interactions with hepatic macrophages. [36] We also found that apoVs activate the Fas pathway in multiple myeloma cells and thus induce apoptosis in these tumor cells. [37] Pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived apoVs (PSC-apoVs) can inherit pluripotent molecules from PSCs to stimulate adult stem cells and promote wound healing in mouse skin. [38] Exogenous apoVs (apoEVs) have been reported to promote wound healing and hair growth by activating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. [39] The administration of apoVs can prevent Th17 differentiation and memory T cell formation to ameliorate inflammation and joint erosion in a mouse model of arthritis. [40] While mouse MSC-derived apoVs has been used to treat osteoporosis, [41] whether apoVs derived from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMMSCs) can impact bone metabolism is unknown. Thus, we investigated the regulatory role of apoVs in bone metabolism and therapeutic effects on bone defects and bone loss. Our results provide an important theoretical basis for novel clinical applications of hBMMSCs-derived apoVs.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are widely used in the treatment of diseases. After their in vivo application, MSCs undergo apoptosis and release apoptotic vesicles (apoVs). This study investigates the role of apoVs derived from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMMSCs) in bone metabolism and the molecular mechanism of the observed effects. The results show that apoVs can promote osteogenesis and inhibit osteoclast formation in vitro and in vivo. ApoVs may t...