Synthesis, Chemistry, and Medical Application of Bacterial Cellulose Nanocomposites

Abstract

Bacterial cellulose (BC), an environmental friendly polymeric material, has recently received immense attention in the human society. Herein, we have focused on the biosynthesis, chemical structure, and physiological behavior of BC along with synthetic routes and medical applications of its nanocomposites. The structure of BC consists of nanofibrils made up of (1 → 4) β-glycosidic linked glucose units interconnected through intra-and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The interconnected 3D network structure of BC nanofibers with a high degree of nanoporosity makes BC an ideal candidate for the incorporation of nanomaterials to form reinforced composites. BC nanocomposites have been synthesized through a number of routes that have not only improved the existing properties of BC, but also enhanced it with novel features. Among nanomaterials, metal, metal oxides, and organic nanomaterials have been effectively used to engender antimicrobial, biocompatible, conductive, and magnetic properties in BC. BC nanocomposites have been successfully employed in the medical field and have shown a high clinical value for wound healing and skin tissue repair. Recent interest has been focused on designing ideal biomedical devices like artificial skin and artificial blood vessels from BC. This study will provide an extensive background about the primary features of BC and discuss the synthetic routes and chemical feasibility of BC nanocomposites along with their current and future application in the medical field.

Production of Bacterial Cellulose from Acetobacter Species and Its Applications – A Review

“…Large scale production for the commercial application requires BC with optimum shape, composition and maximum BC properties 17,42,43 . BC secretes as a pellicle under shaking condition or as a sheet at air-liquid interface in static culture 41,[44][45][46] . Advanced techniques for the fabrication of biomolecules using microbial cellulose are in progress and the cell-free system is one such technique 47,48 .…”

“…Decreased productivity and increased cultivation time limit industrial application of this culture technique. Pellicle formation is influenced by the surface of the culture medium, and also aeration at the vacuum/liquid interface will yield high-quality cellulose 44,49,50 . A newly invented bioreactor system, Horizontal Lift Reactor (HoLiR) was developed for semi-continuous production of BC.…”

“…In this method, maximum yield in comparatively less time can be possible. The higher yield of BC is possibly due to the homogeneous distribution of nutrients, cells, air, and substrates 44,51,52 . In agitating cultivation method cells have improved contact with circulating air leads to an improved growth rate 44 .Previous studies showed that the BC yield from the agitated technique is lower when compared to the static method, probably due to the emergence of cellulose mutant strains under agitated technique 6,50,53 which may lower the BC yield.…”

Perspective Applications and Associated Challenges of Using Nanocellulose in Treating Bone-Related Diseases

“…It possesses unique structural, physico-chemical, mechanical, thermal, and biological features and is a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) biological product (Yang et al, 2018;Zhong, 2020). It has been extensively used for various biomedical and other applications in the form of hydrogels, membranes, particles, and three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds, where its properties are tuned according to the target applications (Ul- Islam et al, 2015). Its innate features are modulated through the development of its composites with different materials like natural and synthetic polymers (Shah et al, 2013), nanomaterials (Ul- Khan et al, 2015;Ullah et al, 2016b), peptides (Curvello et al, 2019), ceramics (DeMello, 2012), clays (Ul- Islam et al, 2013a), plant extracts (Fatima et al, 2021;Ul-Islam et al, 2021a), and others (Mbituyimana et al, 2021).…”

“…For instance, the development of BNC-based wound dressings is currently on the market, while some BNC implants are in the phase of clinical studies as a novel solution to yet unresolved complications in regenerative medicine (Klemm et al, 2018;Sharma and Bhardwaj, 2019;Zhong, 2020). Studies have shown that the BNC-based scaffolds play vital roles in the regeneration of bone and cartilage (Khan et al, 2020a), as the drug delivery systems (Pachuau, 2017;Li et al, 2018), biosensing platforms (Jasim et al, 2017;Farooq et al, 2020), diagnostic tools (Ul- Islam et al, 2019b), and several other areas (Islam et al, 2015;Derakhshanfar et al, 2018;McCarthy et al, 2019a,b, Wang et al, 2020a. The impregnation of nanomaterials to BNC and its use as the wound dressing biomaterial, broad-spectrum antimicrobial, surface disinfectant, and nanodrugs for the treatment of different diseases (Lin and Dufresne, 2014;Di et al, 2017;Wang et al, 2020b) could be an effective approach for addressing several clinical issues.…”