Switching between spatial stimulus-response mappings: a developmental study of cognitive flexibility

Abstract

Four different age groups (8-9-year-olds, 11-12-year-olds, 13-15-year-olds and young adults) performed a spatial rule-switch task in which the sorting rule had to be detected on the basis of feedback or on the basis of switch cues. Performance errors were examined on the basis of a recently introduced method of error scoring for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST; Barcelo & Knight, 2002). This method allowed us to differentiate between errors due to failure-to-maintain-set (distraction errors) and errors due to failure-to-switch-set (perseverative errors). The anticipated age differences in performance errors were most pronounced for perseverative errors between 8-9 years and 11-12 years, but for distraction errors adult levels were not reached until 13-15 years. These findings were interpreted to support the notion that set switching and set maintenance follow distinct developmental trajectories.

Age-Group Differences in Set-Switching and Set-Maintenance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task

“…In the present study, set-maintenance performance on the WCST continued to develop into adolescence. This finding is consistent with the results of other studies, reporting the improvement of set-maintenance performance into adolescence (e.g., Chelune & Baer, 1986;Crone et al, 2004). This developmental trend indicates that with advancing age children are less susceptible to random failures to maintain set during WSCT performance.…”

“…In this study, performance of set-switching abilities (i.e., perseverative errors) reached young-adult levels in 11-year-olds. This finding is consistent with the results of prior developmental studies (Chelune & Baer, 1986;Crone et al, 2004;Lehto, 2004;Welsh et al, 1991). It should be noted, however, that in contrast to other DEVELOPMENT OF SET-SWITCHING AND SET-MAINTENANCE ON THE WCST studies (Barceló & Knight; Crone et al), the number of efficient errors observed here was rather low.…”

“…Interestingly, in the older age groups, a separate set-maintenance factor was not observed, suggesting the development of the ability to resist distraction from irrelevant interfering information. This finding is consistent with previous literature, in which the ability to maintain set is associated with an increased ability to keep information on-line in working memory (Barceló & Knight, 2002;Case, 1992;Crone et al, 2004). The finding of WCST performance being represented by two factors in 7-year-olds and by only one single factor from late childhood on is taken to suggest the increasing efficiency of EF, most likely reflecting the increasing focal PFC activation that is observed during childhood and adolescence (e.g., Amso & Casey, 2006;Casey et al, 2005).…”

“…This developmental trend indicates that with advancing age children are less susceptible to random failures to maintain set during WSCT performance. The reported age-related increase in set-maintaining performance might reflect an increased ability to keep information on-line (Barceló & Knight, 2002;Case, 1992;Crone et al, 2004;Gathercole et al, 2004).…”

“…Recently, Crone, Ridderinkhof, Worm, Somsen, and Van der Molen (2004) obtained evidence suggesting the separability of set-switching and set-maintenance processes during WCST performance. They tested four age groups (8-9-year-olds, 11-12-year-olds, 13-15-year-olds, and young adults) using an experimental analogue of the WCST, which involved spatially compatible and incompatible S-R mapping rules.…”