Survival and Transport of Enteric Viruses in the Environment

First description of Adenovirus, Enterovirus, Rotavirus and Torque teno virus in water samples collected from the Arroio Dilúvio, Porto Alegre, Brazil

“…The majority of these viruses is non-enveloped, which makes them highly resistant in the water environment (Sobsey and Meschke, 2003;Bosch et al, 2006). The most commonly studied species of enteric viruses are enterovirus (EV), adenovirus (AdV), genogroup A rotaviruses (GARV), hepatitis A and E viruses and more recently, norovirus (Leclerc et al, 2002;Abdel-Moety et al, 2008;Gibson et al, 2011).…”

Polioviruses and other Enteroviruses

“…EVs, like other picornaviruses, have evolved thermal stability (stable at 42°C or up to 50°C in the presence of sulfhydryl reducing agents and magnesium cations) and pH stability (pH 3-9) in the extracellular environment, which is the result of the assembly of virus particles of all picornaviruses Hurst and Adcock, 2000;Hurst and Murphy, 1996;National Research Council, 2004;Racaniello, 2013). Indeed, the biophysical properties of picornaviruses such as their small-size (30 nm), genome type (ssRNA), and non-enveloped protein capsid structure of the virion are known to play an important role on the mechanisms of virus survival and transport in the environment (Bosch et al, 2006;Gerba et al, 2013;National Research Council, 2004;Sobsey and Meschke, 2003;Wigginton and Kohn, 2012;Xagoraraki et al, 2014). In particular, the electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions involving functional groups of the viral capsid (i.e., charged amino acids residues) are essential for capsid assembly, capsid stability, and virus particle adsorption to solid surfaces (e.g., suspended solids, sediments and environmental surfaces or fomites) (Mateu, 2011;Michen and Graule, 2010).…”

“…The concentrations reported in the different studies included in Table 8 vary as a result of the level of sewage treatment provided and the methods used to concentrate and detect the viruses. Solid-associated virions in marine waters are protected from inactivation by environmental stressors (e.g., sunlight irradiation, increasing temperatures, and microbial enzymatic degradation), can be transported long distances after discharge in surficial sediment pore water, and particle-bound virions in sediments can be easily resuspended by mild turbulence and water movements including tidal currents, patterns of water circulation, prevailing winds, storm action, dredging, boating and in coastal and shelf environments (Bosch et al, 2006;Dupuy et al, 2014;Gerba, 2007;Hurst and Murphy, 1996;Pianetti et al, 2007;Rao et al, 1986). …”

“…swimming, water skiing, scuba diving, and surfing (Bosch et al, 2006;Dyble et al, 2008;Griffin et al, 2003;Stewart et al, 2008).…”

“…The persistence and survival of human enteric viruses, including EVs and other picornaviruses, in the extracellular environment (e.g., water, soil, food, aerosols, and environmental surfaces or fomites), the combination of factors that influence survival (i.e., temperature and seasonal variation, pH, salinity, relative humidity, sunlight irradiation and UV light penetration, wet weather flows, viral aggregation, viral adsorption to suspended solids or surfaces, microbial biome and microbial predation), the risks for transmission of EV infections through environmental exposures (water, foods, aerosols, and fomites), and prevention strategies to reduce this risk have been extensively documented by peer-reviewed scientific research and reviewed in detail by several authors (Bertrand et al, 2012;Bosch et al, 2006;de Roda Husman et al, 2009;Gerba, , 2007Gerba et al, 2013;John and Rose, 2005;Rzezutka and Cook, 2004;Vasickova and Kovarcik, 2013;Vasickova et al, 2010;Xagoraraki et al, 2014;Yates and Yates, 1988) EV virions can survive outside the body for months under favorable environmental conditions (Bosch et al, 2006;Dowdle and Birmingham, 1997;Mattle et al, 2011;National Research Council, 2004;Pallansch et al, 2013;Templeton et al, 2004;Templeton et al, 2008;Young and Sharp, 1977). These conditions include neutral pH, moisture, low temperature: 4 -10°C), and association with particles in untreated or partly treated waste waters that protects against inactivation by natural or artificial processes, including enzymatic (i.e., proteolytic bacterial enzymes) or UV degradation and chemical disinfection (discussed further in Section 3.2).…”