Surface Tension of the Oxide Skin of Gallium-Based Liquid Metals

Handschuh‐Wang, Stephan; Gan, Tiansheng; Wang, Tao; Stadler, Florian J.; Zhou, Feng

doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00966

Cited by 82 publications

(78 citation statements)

References 54 publications

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“…Despite the temperature and composition of the liquid metal, copious other parameters affect the liquids’ and liquid metals’ surface tension. Important parameters are curvature (size effect), surface oxidation, , adsorption of molecules and ions, and electrochemical approaches. , Little known and employed effects on the surface tension of liquid metals are exerted by pressure and standing waves, and suggested for steady magnetic fields, in line with the alteration of the surface tension of heavy water . In the following subsections, we concentrate on introducing the major effects discussed and employed in the literature concerned with liquid metals.…”

Section: Surface Tensionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Surface Tensionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Most of the issues encountered can be retraced to the high yield stress of the oxide skin; the oxide is often described to behave solid-like, once the onset of surface oxidation is reached. This high yield stress is detrimental for measuring the surface tension of the (gallium) oxide skin and liquid metal marbles, , alters the viscoelastic properties of the liquid metal, is responsible for the peculiar wetting and adhesion behavior of the liquid metal, and may affect the measurement of electrical and thermal conductivity. Significantly, by altering one physical property, i.e., thermal conductivity by adding particles, other properties, such as viscosity and electrical conductivity, are affected.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Critical Review on the Physical Properties of Gallium-Based Liquid Metals and Selected Pathways for Their Alteration

2021

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Gallium-based liquid metals have gained plenty of attention in the scientific community due to their extraordinary properties. The most intriguing properties of liquid metals are high surface tension, density anomaly, high electrical and thermal conductivity, phase transition, and their temperature and low viscosity in combination with their low toxicity. Though there are many reports of the physical properties of gallium-based liquid metals, some of these are highly scattered and inconsistent. Therefore, we compile literature data of these aspects of gallium-based liquid metals, point out general relationships of these physical parameters, and unravel inconsistencies in the literature. Subsequently, we state reasons for the observed scatter and recommend science-based values researchers should employ. Furthermore, we discuss important dependencies between the physical parameters, introduce methods to alter the physical parameters, and introduce selected applications based on changing the physical properties. Finally, we point out open questions concerned with the physical parameters of liquid metals, which should be investigated in the future.

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Section: Surface Tensionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Surface Tensionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Critical Review on the Physical Properties of Gallium-Based Liquid Metals and Selected Pathways for Their Alteration

2021

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“…In recent years, with the development of materials science, various unique effects of soft matter have been gradually discovered and utilized. In particular, room-temperature liquid metals possess many favorable properties [20][21][22][23][24][25][26] , including large surface tension, ideal flexibility, high conductivity, low toxicity and so on. Furthermore, their excellent electric conductivity molds them into intrinsically conductive fluids.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Insights into fluidic endogenous magnetism and magnetic monopoles from a liquid metal droplet machine

Zhou¹,

Zu²,

Liu³

2021

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Magnetism and magnetic monopoles are among the most classical issues in physics. Conventional magnets are generally composed of rigid materials and may face challenges in extreme situations. Here, as an alternative to rigid magnets, we propose, for the first time, the generation of fluidic endogenous magnetism and construct a magnetic monopole through tuning with a liquid metal machine. Based on theoretical interpretation and conceptual experimental observations, we illustrate that when liquid metals, such as gallium alloy, in a solution rotate under electrical actuation, they form an endogenous magnetic field inside. This explains the phenomenon where two such discrete metal droplets can easily fuse together, indicating their reciprocal attraction via the N and S poles. Furthermore, we reveal that a self-fueled liquid metal motor also runs as an endogenous fluidic magnet owing to the electromagnetic homology. When aluminum is added to liquid gallium in solution, it forms a spin motor and dynamically variable charge distribution that produces endogenous magnetism inside. This explains the common phenomena where reflective collision and attractive fusion between running liquid metal motors occur, which are partially caused by the dynamic adjustment of their N and S polarities, respectively. On this basis, more experimental approaches capable of generating dynamic electrical fields also work for the same target. Finally, we propose that such a fluidic endogenous magnet could lead to a magnetic monopole and four technical routes to realize this are suggested. The first involves matching the interior flow of liquid metal machines. The second is the superposition between an external electric effect and the magnetic field. The third route involves composite construction between magnetic particles and a liquid metal spin motor. Finally, chemical methods, such as via galvanic cell reactions, are proposed. Overall, the present theory and identified experimental evidence illustrate the role of a liquid metal machine as a fluidic endogenous magnet and highlight promising methods for the realization of magnetic monopoles. A group of unconventional magnetoelectric devices and applications could therefore be possible in the near future.

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“…The pristine liquid metal (without an oxide skin) exhibits a high surface tension (SFT, ~600 mN/m for galinstan) and, in contact with water, a high interface tension (IFT) of ~490 mN/m [ 10 , 11 ]. Surface oxidation is known to reduce the SFT (and IFT) of the LM considerably: the SFT of oxidized galinstan is about 360 mN/m and the IFT in water is even lower [ 12 ]. Notably, the IFT can be lowered to near 0 mN/m by applying voltage to oxidize the LM in an electrolyte solution [ 13 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Self-Healable and Recyclable Dual-Shape Memory Liquid Metal–Elastomer Composites

et al. 2022

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Liquid metal (LM)–polymer composites that combine the thermal and electrical conductivity of LMs with the shape-morphing capability of polymers are attracting a great deal of attention in the fields of reconfigurable electronics and soft robotics. However, investigation of the synergetic effect between the shape-changing properties of LMs and polymer matrices is lacking. Herein, a self-healable and recyclable dual-shape memory composite, comprising an LM (gallium) and a Diels–Alder (DA) crosslinked crystalline polyurethane (PU) elastomer, is reported. The composite exhibits a bilayer structure and achieves excellent shape programming abilities, due to the phase transitions of the LM and the crystalline PU elastomers. To demonstrate these shape-morphing abilities, a heat-triggered soft gripper, which can grasp and release objects according to the environmental temperature, is designed and built. Similarly, combining the electrical conductivity and the dual-shape memory effect of the composite, a light-controlled reconfigurable switch for a circuit is produced. In addition, due to the reversible nature of DA bonds, the composite is self-healable and recyclable. Both the LM and PU elastomer are recyclable, demonstrating the extremely high recycling efficiency (up to 96.7%) of the LM, as well as similar mechanical properties between the reprocessed elastomers and the pristine ones.

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Surface Tension of the Oxide Skin of Gallium-Based Liquid Metals

Cited by 82 publications

References 54 publications

Critical Review on the Physical Properties of Gallium-Based Liquid Metals and Selected Pathways for Their Alteration

Critical Review on the Physical Properties of Gallium-Based Liquid Metals and Selected Pathways for Their Alteration

Insights into fluidic endogenous magnetism and magnetic monopoles from a liquid metal droplet machine

Self-Healable and Recyclable Dual-Shape Memory Liquid Metal–Elastomer Composites

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