“…It appears to me that, to a substantial extent, the use of technology in these ways supports language teaching rather than language learning , which raises concerns about how students can improve the intelligibility of their oral production when they work on their own (e.g., Cepik & Yastibas, 2013; Dang & T. T. T. Tran, 2021; Mulyadi et al, 2021; T. V. A. Nguyen & Le, 2020). Some cases do involve student learning but are liable to encounter a variety of obstacles associated with the personalisation of the teaching content (e.g., Saed et al, 2021; Saepuloh et al, 2021), the availability of materials that suit students’ level of proficiency (e.g., Bui, 2020; Maulana, 2018), the availability of human resources (e.g., T. M. L. Nguyen, 2019), or a heavy dependence on learners’ own ability to adapt to the linguistic level of the input (e.g., Bahrani, 2011; Safitri & Khoiriyah, 2017). These hindrances can be exaggerated in contexts where teachers must work within a mandated syllabus or curriculum (e.g., Vietnam) in which the materials and resources to be used are already selected for them.…”