Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review and meta-analysis.

Abstract

Previous reviews and meta-analyses that addressed abnormal Stroop interference in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) yielded mixed results. The authors of the present study argue that the inconsistencies may reflect the problematic nature of 2 frequently used methods to quantify Stroop interference-the difference score and Golden's method (C. J. Golden, 1978). Golden's method correction for base-word reading is inadequate, and the difference score is sensitive to the nature of the outcome variable. The latter can be remedied with a ratio score. Contrasting previous meta-analyses, this meta-analysis covers all age groups and all Stroop test variants, and it excludes studies using the Golden quantification method. Mean effect sizes for interference in ADHD as quantified by difference scores relative to control scores were 0.24 across all studies but 1.11 for time-per-item studies; outcome variable was a significant moderator variable, reflecting the sensitivity of the difference score to this variable. Consistency analysis of ratio scores across 19 studies reveals more interference for the ADHD groups relative to the control groups. It is concluded that interference control is consistently compromised in individuals with ADHD.Keywords: meta-analysis, Stroop interference, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Stroop color and word task Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is defined by inappropriate degrees of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Barkley (1997) suggested that behavioral disinhibition is the primary deficit in ADHD (predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type and combined type) and distinguished three interrelated forms of behavioral inhibition. The first form is inhibition of an initial prepotent response to an event, that is, a response for which immediate reinforcement is available or with which reinforcement has been previously associated. The second form is stopping an ongoing response or response pattern. This causes a delay in the decision to respond or to continue responding. The third form is interference control, defined as protecting the period of delay and self-directed responses that occur within it from disruption by competing events and responses.Continuous performance tests (CPTs) and stop-signal tasks can be used to assess both inhibition of prepotent responses and stopping of ongoing responses. Several reviews and meta-analyses (Corkum & Siegel, 1993;Lijffijt, Kenemans, Verbaten, & van Engeland, 2005;Losier, McGrath, & Klein, 1996;Oosterlaan, Logan, & Sergeant, 1998;Riccio, Reynolds, & Lowe, 2001) demonstrated that individuals with ADHD perform worse on a CPT and stop-signal task as compared with normal control participants, reflecting poor response inhibition in ADHD patients. The Stroop test (Stroop, 1935) can be used to quantify interference control. Inconsistent findings have been reported regarding deficient interference control in ADHD. Stroop Test and ADHDThree versions of the Stroop test have been used in ADHD research: the standard Stroop ...

Color perception deficits in co-existing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and chronic tic disorders

“…These results from unmedicated children add evidence to the ongoing controversial discussion about deficits on the different Stroop parameters in ADHD (Sergeant et al 2002;Lawrence et al 2004;Boonstra et al 2005;van Mourik et al 2005;Lansbergen et al 2007). Probably too many confounding factors are involved in the very complex Stroop task that a clear disorder-specific picture cannot be detected, or perhaps expected.…”

Verbal fluency in children with ADHD: Strategy using and temporal properties

“…One of the most frequently used tests to measure inhibition in ADHD is the Stroop task (Nigg, Willcutt, Doyle, & Sonuga-Barke, 2005;Willcutt, et al, 2005). Despite that the sensitivity of the measurement for the prepotent response inhibition impairment in ADHD is debated, the variants of the Stroop are the most known EF task in neuropsychological practice (Lansbergen, Kenemans, & van Engeland, 2007;van Mourik, Oosterlaan, & Sergeant, 2005). Several studies suggest the dysfunction of working memory (WM), however this cognitive symptom is not specific to ADHD, and can be observed in many of other developmental psychiatric syndromes such as autism spectrum disorder, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, etc.…”

Stroop Color and Word Test

“…Lansbergen et al (2007) point out that the index IG might not be adequately corrected for inter-individual differences in the reading ability, despite its effective adjustment for color naming. The Authors highlight that the reading process is more automated in expert readers, and, consequently, they may be more susceptible to interference (Lansbergen et al, 2007), thus, requiring that the score is weighted according to individual reading ability. However, experimental data suggests that the increased reading practice does not affect the susceptibility to interference in SCWT (Jensen and Rohwer, 1966).…”