Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions

Hammen, Constance

doi:10.1002/jclp.20293

Cited by 577 publications

(669 citation statements)

References 68 publications

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“…For example, it could reflect incomplete penetrance in the G2 generation, with unaffected parents transmitting susceptibility genes from grandparents to grandchildren. Alternatively, grandparental (G1) MDD could influence the development of characteristics in the parental (G2) generation, such as maladaptive parenting, familial dysfunction, and a tendency to generate stressful family environments 30,31 that, in turn, increase risk of internalizing problems in the next (G3) generation. Such processes could be important targets for intervention to disrupt the intergenerational transmission of psychopathology.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of Parental and Grandparental Major Depressive Disorder on Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: A Three-Generation Study

Olino

Pettit

Klein

et al. 2008

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psych

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Objective-This aim of this study was to examine the influence of grandparental (G1) and parental (G2) major depressive disorder (MDD) and other forms of psychopathology on behavior problems in very young offspring (G3).Method-Oregon Adolescent Depression Project (OADP) participants who had children over a 3-year period were invited to participate in a study of infant and child development. We attempted to collect diagnostic history from the original OADP (G2) participants, their coparents, the parents of the original OADP participants (G1), and the parents of the coparents. Child (G3) outcomes at 24 months of age were based on parent reports of behavior problems.Results-Univariate correlations indicated that G1 and G2 familial loadings for MDD were associated with higher levels of G3 internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Multiple regression analyses revealed a significant interaction between G1 and G2 MDD on G3 internalizing (but not externalizing) behavior problems. A higher familial loading for MDD in either the parental or grandparental generation was associated with elevated grandchild internalizing problems, but higher loadings for MDD in both generations did not convey additional risk.Conclusions-Parental MDD and grandparental MDD are both associated with elevated levels of internalizing problems in young grandchildren, but MDD in both the G1 and G2 generations does not confer additional risk. One important implication is that MDD in the grandparental generation is associated with increased risk to grandchildren even in the absence of parental MDD. Future studies should examine the mechanisms through which grandparental psychopathology influences behavior problems in grandchildren. Although there are a number of three-generation studies of the familial transmission of externalizing disorders, 6-8 we are aware of only two published 9,10 studies of depressive disorders that examine three generations within the same families. KeywordsWeissman and colleagues 10,11 prospectively followed the offspring (parents [G2]) of patients with MDD and individuals with no history of mood disorders (grandparents [G1]). Diagnostic information was collected on both the G1 parent probands and G1 coparents. Subsequently, these investigators assessed G3 (child) offspring older than the age of 5 years of the G2 parents. Weissman et al. 10 reported a significant interaction between grandparental (G1) MDD and parental (G2) MDD on both anxiety disorders and psychopathology in general in the grandchildren (G3). This interaction suggested that grandchildren with a family history of MDD in both the parental and grandparental generations were at greatest risk of psychopathology. There was also a heightened risk of psychopathology in grandchildren if there was a history of MDD in the grandparents, but not in the parents. However, in the absence of grandparental MDD, the risk of psychopathology in grandchildren did not differ as a function of whether their parents had MDD. Thus, although the combination of grandparent...

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of Parental and Grandparental Major Depressive Disorder on Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: A Three-Generation Study

Olino

Pettit

Klein

et al. 2008

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psych

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“…Checklists often fail to capture relevant life events ( Duggal, Malkoff -Schwartz, Birmaher, Anderson, Matty, Houck, et al, 2000 ) and encourage respondents to endorse events that do not fi t researchers' conceptions of suffi ciently intense experiences ( Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Gau, 2003 ). Secondly, despite evidence that stress-prone individuals actively contribute to their own experience of elevated life adversity ( Hammen, 2006 ), previous studies on life events and parenting stress have not controlled for participants' histories of aff ective symptoms. Finally, the extant research on life adversity and parenting stress has relied upon adversity measures that include events from both inside and outside the parenting domain.…”

Section: The Psychosocial Context Of Parentingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Parenting stress in early motherhood: stress spillover and social support¹

Williamson¹,

McCabe²,

O’Hara³

et al. 2013

Comprehensive Psychology

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Mothers facing stressors or lacking adequate support often fi nd parenting more challenging and less enjoyable. This study examined the mechanisms through which contextual variables might infl uence perceptions of parenting. Participants were 153 mothers of toddlers who completed interviews and questionnaires on life adversity, social support, negative aff ect, and parenting stress. Life adversity was positively associated with parenting stress and this association was mediated through negative aff ect. Emotional support moderated the association between adversity and negative aff ect. Life adversity appeared to promote negative aff ect, which in turn led mothers to regard their child as more obstinate and demanding and their interactions with their children as less enjoyable. Adversity had little eff ect on parental perceptions among mothers with adequate emotional support.

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“…For instance, adolescents may become more sensitive to stress after having experienced child abuse or previous episodes of mental illness (Monroe & Harkness, 2005;Morris, Ciesla, & Garber, 2010;Stroud, Davila, & Moyer, 2008). The relationships between vulnerability and stress are further complicated by the observation that past stressors may increase not only sensitivity to future stress, but also exposure to it, in a process of stress generation (Hammen, 2006;Liu & Alloy, 2010). For instance, exposure to severe stressors such as child abuse increase the risk for depression, which in turn strains interpersonal relationships and performance, resulting in an increased likelihood of future life events involving conflicts, break-ups, or dismissals.…”

Section: The Stress Process As a New Angle To Look At Dropoutmentioning

confidence: 99%

Stressors and Turning Points in High School and Dropout

Dupéré

Leventhal

Dion

et al. 2015

Review of Educational Research

136

103

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High school dropout is commonly seen as the result of a long-term process of failure and disengagement. As useful as it is, this view has obscured the heterogeneity of pathways leading to dropout. Research suggests, for instance, that some students leave school not as a result of protracted difficulties but in response to situations that emerge late in their schooling careers, such as health problems or severe peer victimization. Conversely, others with a history of early difficulties persevere when their circumstances improve during high school. Thus, an adequate understanding of why and when students drop out requires a consideration of both long-term vulnerabilities and proximal disruptive events and contingencies. The goal of this review is to integrate long-term and immediate determinants of dropout by proposing a stress process, life course model of dropout. This model is also helpful for understanding how the determinants of dropout vary across socioeconomic conditions and geographical and historical contexts. There have been repeated calls in the scientific literature to consider high school dropout not as an event but as a process (see Christenson & Thurlow, 2004;Rumberger, 2011). In this view, dropout is the endpoint of a long trajectory of disengagement starting as soon as, and even before, children enter school. This long-term approach has led to breakthroughs in our understanding of the roots of dropout. Longitudinal studies spanning the first two decades of life have illuminated the role that early family circumstances and school experiences play in putting some children on a high-risk trajectory for dropout (e. Beechum, 2014). Understanding the causes of dropout among students who do not follow a clearly identified pathway out of school is necessary to tailor interventions to their needs (Feinstein & Peck, 2008). Among these dropouts, precipitating factors (i.e., situations emerging for high school students not long before the decision to dropout is made) could play an important role (e.g., see Bowers & Sprott, 2012b; America's Promise Alliance, 2014).In addition, even among students already considered at risk when they enter high school, there is considerable heterogeneity in terms of timing and outcomes, with some leaving school later than others and others unexpectedly graduating (Bowers, Sprott, & Taff, 2013;Vitaro, Larocque, Janosz, & Tremblay, 2001). This heterogeneity could be determined in part by circumstances emerging late in students' schooling careers. In fact, improved circumstances in adolescence can close wide achievement gaps established during the elementary school years (Dobbie & Fryer, 2011). Conversely, peak vulnerability could arise when early failure intersects with challenging circumstances in high school, such as when students are under important stress or are offered new opportunities incompatible with schooling (e.g., a full-time job). Attention to such precipitating factors among students following a recognizable long-term problematic path could contribute to a ...

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Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions

Cited by 577 publications

References 68 publications

Influence of Parental and Grandparental Major Depressive Disorder on Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: A Three-Generation Study

Influence of Parental and Grandparental Major Depressive Disorder on Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: A Three-Generation Study

Parenting stress in early motherhood: stress spillover and social support¹

Stressors and Turning Points in High School and Dropout

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Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions

Cited by 577 publications

References 68 publications

Influence of Parental and Grandparental Major Depressive Disorder on Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: A Three-Generation Study

Influence of Parental and Grandparental Major Depressive Disorder on Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: A Three-Generation Study

Parenting stress in early motherhood: stress spillover and social support1

Stressors and Turning Points in High School and Dropout

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Product

Resources

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Parenting stress in early motherhood: stress spillover and social support¹