Stimuli-responsive hydrogels: smart state of-the-art platforms for cardiac tissue engineering

Abstract

Biomedicine and tissue regeneration have made significant advancements recently, positively affecting the whole healthcare spectrum. This opened the way for them to develop their applications for revitalizing damaged tissues. Thus, their functionality will be restored. Cardiac tissue engineering (CTE) using curative procedures that combine biomolecules, biomimetic scaffolds, and cells plays a critical part in this path. Stimuli-responsive hydrogels (SRHs) are excellent three-dimensional (3D) biomaterials for tissue engineering (TE) and various biomedical applications. They can mimic the intrinsic tissues’ physicochemical, mechanical, and biological characteristics in a variety of ways. They also provide for 3D setup, adequate aqueous conditions, and the mechanical consistency required for cell development. Furthermore, they function as competent delivery platforms for various biomolecules. Many natural and synthetic polymers were used to fabricate these intelligent platforms with innovative enhanced features and specialized capabilities that are appropriate for CTE applications. In the present review, different strategies employed for CTE were outlined. The light was shed on the limitations of the use of conventional hydrogels in CTE. Moreover, diverse types of SRHs, their characteristics, assembly and exploitation for CTE were discussed. To summarize, recent development in the construction of SRHs increases their potential to operate as intelligent, sophisticated systems in the reconstruction of degenerated cardiac tissues.

Biomedical Trends in Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels with Emphasis on Chitosan-Based Formulations

“…Magneticresponsive hydrogels are made via the incorporation of nanoparticles, facilitating drug delivery, tissue engineering, and soft robotics. These hydrogels can influence neurogenesis, signal transmission, and the extracellular matrix [94,118,120]. Chitosan-based hydrogels may also respond to several stimuli concurrently and independently, resulting in a more dynamic and sophisticated response, as well as negative effect limitation.…”

“…The incorporation of nanoparticles into the hydrogels allows them to respond to the magnetic field [118]. These particles may self-assemble into an organized structure on the hydrogel surface, which was utilized to regulate cell proliferation, neurogenesis, signal transmission, and extracellular matrix regeneration [94].…”

“…These particles may self-assemble into an organized structure on the hydrogel surface, which was utilized to regulate cell proliferation, neurogenesis, signal transmission, and extracellular matrix regeneration [94]. Magnetic components can take the form of plated oxides or metallic particles that utilize nickel, iron, or cobalt [118]. Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles are frequently used in pharmaceutical settings due to their biocompatibility, strong magnetic ability, and relative simplicity of synthesis [119].…”

Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels for Protein Delivery

“…It is suggested that high salt concentrations reduce the repulsive electrostatic strength of the polymer, followed by an increase in hydrophobic interactions and, in turn, network precipitation [99]. Also, hydrogels made from these polymers swell differently in water and in an electrolytic solution [100]. Besides inducing hydrogelation, ionic strength is an effective way to improve mechanical and transport properties [101].…”

Engineering the cardiac tissue microenvironment

“…Yet another cell-related limitation of these devices is the current inability to easily recapitulate all relevant stimuli that the heart may be experiencing. While it is possible to stimulate models mechanically, electrically, or both, and even introduce some cross-talk with other organ models [328], the systemic factors, paracrine factors, and immune factors that have recently been shown to significantly impact CVD outcomes have yet to be meaningfully integrated. On a final note, there is also no single device which manages to incorporate all of these signals into a single, cost effective, easy to utilize device, which may be described as the ultimate goal of cardiac tissue engineered models.…”