“…In the study area, the distribution and thickness of unconsolidated deposits overlying the bedrock, including till, lacustrine silt and clay, and fluvial sand and gravel, are highly variable because of the timing and direction of glacial advances and retreats, bedrock topography (see, e.g., Kindle and Taylor 1913), and the prior existence of glacial lakes, such as Glacial Lake Tonawanda (Muller 1977). Additionally, Kappel et al (2020) described near-surface karst features (sinkholes, swallets, and losing streams), where unconsolidated deposits are thin or absent. These surface features have the potential to rapidly focus recharge to the water table and thus the potential to also move natural and anthropogenic compounds rapidly from land surface to the groundwater.…”