Spatial and temporal distribution of foot-and-mouth disease in four districts situated along the Uganda–Tanzania border: Implications for cross-border efforts in disease control

Abstract

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the major trans-boundary animal diseases in East Africa causing economic loss to farmers and other stakeholders in the livestock industry. Foot-and-mouth disease occurs widely in both Uganda and Tanzania with annual outbreaks recorded. With the recent introduction of the Progressive Control Pathway for FMD control (PCP-FMD) in eastern Africa, knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of FMD at the border area between Uganda and Tanzania is helpful in framing engagement with the initial stages of the PCP. Retrospective data collected between 2011 and 2016 from four districts located along the border areas of Uganda and Tanzania, recorded 23 and 59 FMD outbreaks, respectively, for the entire study period. Analysis showed that 46% of the 82 recorded outbreaks occurred in 20% of sub-counties and wards immediately neighbouring the Uganda–Tanzania border and 69.5% of the outbreaks occurred during the dry months. While the serotypes of the FMD virus responsible for most outbreaks reported in this region were not known, previous research reported South African Territory (SAT) 1, SAT 2 and O to be the serotypes in circulation. The results from this study provide evidence of the endemic status of FMD on the Uganda–Tanzania border and emphasise that the border area should be given due consideration during FMD control drives and that cross-border coordination should be prioritised. With the limited data on circulating serotypes in this area, there is a need for more vigilance on FMD case detection, laboratory diagnostic confirmation and provision of more complete documentation of outbreaks. This work further recommends more studies on cross-border livestock movement coupled with phylogenetics in order to understand the spread of the FMD in the border area.

Risk factors for the incursion, spread and persistence of the foot and mouth disease virus in Eastern Rwanda

“…A majority (85.31% with p < 0.01, n = 143) of the farmers interviewed reported that FMD is more likely to occur during the major dry seasons (the major one from June to September and a less severe one from December to February) than in the wet season. These months coincide to what was reported by Kerfua et al [16] and the OIE records [14,24]. We found that the majority (102/143 [71.33%]) (p < 0.01) of the farmers practising semi-zero grazing system and fewer (40/ 143[27.97%] practising strict zero grazing.…”

“…In this regard, this area has been known to be a hotspot for most of the FMD outbreaks in Rwanda for the last two decades [ 12 ]. The dry season seems to be the period during which FMD outbreaks are more likely to occur in Eastern Rwanda and surrounding areas in Uganda and Tanzania [ 14 – 16 ]. During the dry season, there is a shortage of pasture and water; thereby forcing most livestock farmers to move their animals in search of pasture and water.…”

Using participatory epidemiology tools to determine perceived risk factors for foot-and-mouth disease occurrence in selected sub-counties of Isingiro district in Uganda

“…These findings are in tandem with results from other studies in Uganda by Ayebazibwe et al (2010) and in Tanzania by Allepuz et al (2015), who showed that increased distances from border and from the national park were associated with decreased number of outbreaks in both Uganda and Tanzania. Moreover, Kerfua et al (2018) also showed that sub-counties/wards adjacent to the Uganda-Tanzania border had more outbreaks reported compared to those that were afar off from the border. The results from interviews held with the farmers during the focus group discussions and with the key informants further portrayed the border as important risk factor for FMD occurrence of FMD in Isingiro district.…”

Serological and Molecular Investigation of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus and other animal pathogens at the Interface of Akagera National Park and Surrounding Cattle Farms between 2017 and 2020

“…However, in the region, it comes second alongside serotype A and after serotype O (7,26–29). Across the border, in Western Tanzania (Kyerwa and Karagwe districts) and Western Uganda (Isingiro district), SAT 2 has been responsible for several FMD outbreaks (30–32). We hypothesize that if these two regions with Eastern Rwanda that make a triangle with transboundary animal movements are not controlled, they can contribute to the circulation of several strains of FMDV and other similar transboundary animal disease pathogens.…”

“…In Kenya, most of the outbreaks have been caused by serotypes O and SAT2 (33). Among the SATs serotypes, SAT2 is the most predominant in East Africa in general (30) and in Rwanda in particular where the last serotype O outbreak was reported in 2004(34). We hereby report the shreds of evidence that SAT2 was responsible for the 2017 and 2020 FMD outbreaks.…”