Space shuttle exhausted aluminum oxide: A measured particle size distribution

Cofer, Wesley R.; Purgold, G. C.; Winstead, Edward L.; Edahl, Robert A.

doi:10.1029/91jd01713

Cited by 17 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…Scenario "F", which assumes all of the alumina particles are in the small size distribution, is an upper limit computation within the assumptions going into our trimodal size distribution. There is no reason to believe that all the particles are in the smallest size distribution, since the alumina particles do coalesce and there are very good measurements of large particles in SRM exhaust plumes [Cofer et al 1987[Cofer et al , 1991.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A global modeling study of solid rocket aluminum oxide emission effects on stratospheric ozone

Jackman¹,

Considine²,

Fleming³

1998

Geophysical Research Letters

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A global modeling study of solid rocket aluminum oxide emission effects on stratospheric ozone

Jackman¹,

Considine²,

Fleming³

1998

Geophysical Research Letters

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“…Although the value determined here, 37 ± 11%, initially appears to support Beiting, we note the following caveats. Beiting and BM derived size distributions by combining measurements of different limited portions of the size distribution, obtained in the plumes of different rockets, encountered under different atmospheric conditions [ Strand et al , 1981; Zolensky et al , 1989; Cofer et al , 1991]. Hence skepticism must be acknowledged regarding the degree to which the Beiting and BM distributions are representative of any particular SRM under stratospheric conditions.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Size‐resolved particle emission indices in the stratospheric plume of an Athena II rocket

et al. 2003

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[1] Simultaneous measurements of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) mixing ratio and alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) particle abundances between 0.004 and 1.2 mm were obtained in the stratospheric plume wake of an Athena II solid-fueled rocket motor (SRM). A multimode model of the particle size distribution is used to determine the number (N) and surface area (SA) emission indices as 8.7 ± 2.0 Â 10 15 per kg and 6.9 ± 2.1 Â 10 14 mm 2 per kg, respectively. Integration of the size distribution shows that 37% of the total SA and 8% of the total mass (M) are contained in the submicron size range (diameter < 1mm) that most influences the stratospheric impact of alumina particles emitted by SRMs. These values are significantly greater than reported by most previous studies and they imply that the annual global ozone loss associated with SRM alumina emissions is about half of the ozone loss from SRM chlorine emissions alone. Comparison of our results to previous studies raises the possibility that submicron M and SA fraction, and therefore global ozone loss, are inversely related to SRM thrust.

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“…However, literature on particles emitted by rockets is sparse (e.g., Zolensky et al, 1989), and there areto the best of our knowledge -no studies available on carbonaceous particles by electron microscopy. According to Ross and Sheaffer (2014) (Strand et al, 1981;Zolensky et al, 1989;Cofer III et al, 1991) and can, thus, be excluded as the source of the carbonaceous particles encountered in the present study. Hydrocarbon-fired rockets are powered by kerosene or syntin and can be expected to emit soot.…”

Section: Rocket Exhaustmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sub-micrometer refractory carbonaceous particles in the polar stratosphere

et al. 2017

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Abstract. Eleven particle samples collected in the polar stratosphere during SOLVE (SAGE III Ozone loss and validation experiment) from January until March 2000 were characterized in detail by high-resolution transmission and scanning electron microscopy (TEM/SEM) combined with energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis. A total of 4202 particles (TEM = 3872; SEM = 330) were analyzed from these samples, which were collected mostly inside the polar vortex in the altitude range between 17.3 and 19.9 km. Particles that were volatile in the microscope beams contained ammonium sulfates and hydrogen sulfates and dominated the samples. Some particles with diameters ranging from 20 to 830 nm were refractory in the electron beams. Carbonaceous particles containing additional elements to C and O comprised from 72 to 100 % of the refractory particles. The rest were internal mixtures of these materials with sulfates. The median number mixing ratio of the refractory particles, expressed in units of particles per milligram of air, was 1.1 (mg air) −1 and varied between 0.65 and 2.3 (mg air) −1 .Most of the refractory carbonaceous particles are completely amorphous, a few of the particles are partly ordered with a graphene sheet separation distance of 0.37 ± 0.06 nm (mean value ± standard deviation). Carbon and oxygen are the only detected major elements with an atomic O/C ratio of 0.11 ± 0.07. Minor elements observed include Si, S, Fe, Cr and Ni with the following atomic ratios relative to C: Si/C: 0.010 ± 0.011; S/C: 0.0007 ± 0.0015; Fe/C: 0.0052 ± 0.0074; Cr/C: 0.0012 ± 0.0017; Ni/C: 0.0006 ± 0.0011 (all mean values ± standard deviation).High-resolution element distribution images reveal that the minor elements are distributed within the carbonaceous matrix; i.e., heterogeneous inclusions are not observed. No difference in size, nanostructure and elemental composition was found between particles collected inside and outside the polar vortex.Based on chemistry and nanostructure, aircraft exhaust, volcanic emissions and biomass burning can certainly be excluded as sources. The same is true for the less probable but globally important sources: wood burning, coal burning, diesel engines and ship emissions.Recondensed organic matter and extraterrestrial particles, potentially originating from ablation and fragmentation, remain as possible sources of the refractory carbonaceous particles studied. However, additional work is required in order to identify the sources unequivocally.

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Space shuttle exhausted aluminum oxide: A measured particle size distribution

Cited by 17 publications

References 18 publications

A global modeling study of solid rocket aluminum oxide emission effects on stratospheric ozone

A global modeling study of solid rocket aluminum oxide emission effects on stratospheric ozone

Size‐resolved particle emission indices in the stratospheric plume of an Athena II rocket

Sub-micrometer refractory carbonaceous particles in the polar stratosphere

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