Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) Technology for the Monitoring of Aquatic Toxins: A Review

Abstract

The Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) technology, first introduced in 2004, uses porous synthetic resins capable of passively adsorbing toxins produced by harmful microalgae or cyanobacteria and dissolved in the water. This method allows for the detection of toxic compounds directly in the water column and offers numerous advantages over current monitoring techniques (e.g., shellfish or fish testing and microalgae/cyanobacteria cell detection), despite some limitations. Numerous laboratory and field studies, testing different adsorbent substrates of which Diaion® HP20 resin appears to be the most versatile substrate, have been carried out worldwide to assess the applicability of these passive monitoring devices to the detection of toxins produced by a variety of marine and freshwater microorganisms. SPATT technology has been shown to provide reliable, sensitive and time-integrated sampling of various aquatic toxins, and also has the potential to provide an early warning system for both the occurrence of toxic microalgae or cyanobacteria and bioaccumulation of toxins in foodstuffs. This review describes the wide range of lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins associated with toxin-producing harmful algal blooms (HABs) that are successfully detected by SPATT devices. Implications in terms of monitoring of emerging toxic risks and reinforcement of current risk assessment programs are also discussed.

Differences in Abnormal Water Metabolism between SD Rats and KM Mice Intoxicated by Microcystin-RR

“…Rats and mice are common animal models for toxicological studies in mammals. Previous studies reported consistent conclusions to support the nephrotoxicity of MCs in rats [19,20,[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35], but had different views on mice in terms of whether MCs could injure mouse kidneys. Qin, studying the toxicity of MC-LR in mice, found negative outcomes for the kidney, though they did not exclude possible endoplasmic reticulum stress (EMS) in kidney cells [26].…”

“…Over the past decades, most research has been focused on MC-LR and relatively little on MC-RR. These two analogues are cyclic heptapeptides that differ in one amino acid at two variable L-amino acid units (X and Y), MC-LR with a leucine and MC-RR with an arginine respectively [ 32 ]. This chemical differentiation results in differences in their nature and toxicity.…”

Toxic benthic freshwater cyanobacterial proliferations: Challenges and solutions for enhancing knowledge and improving monitoring and mitigation

“…grab samples) provide only a snapshot (in space and time) and may miss areas or times of highest occurrence and therefore risk. To overcome these challenges, the use of solid‐phase adsorption toxin tracking (SPATT) samplers has been applied (Miller et al., 2010; Roué, Darius, & Chinain, 2018; Wood, Holland, & MacKenzie, 2011). This method allows toxins dissolved in the water to bind to an absorbent material suspended in fine mesh.…”

A new method based on diffusive gradients in thin films for in situ monitoring microcystin-LR in waters

“…But according to a previous report 24 , under some conditions, POCIS may result in inaccurate estimations of organic compound concentrations. SPATT also presents some limitations, such as a lack of calibration (no optimal deployment time), thereby limiting the more widespread adoption of this technology for monitoringof pollutants 25 . The DGT technology was developed by Davison and Zhang 26 and initially was used to detect trace metals in natural fresh water systems 20 .…”