Smart Porous Multi-Stimulus Polysaccharide-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering

Abstract

Recently, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine studies have evaluated smart biomaterials as implantable scaffolds and their interaction with cells for biomedical applications. Porous materials have been used in tissue engineering as synthetic extracellular matrices, promoting the attachment and migration of host cells to induce the in vitro regeneration of different tissues. Biomimetic 3D scaffold systems allow control over biophysical and biochemical cues, modulating the extracellular environment through mechanical, electrical, and biochemical stimulation of cells, driving their molecular reprogramming. In this review, first we outline the main advantages of using polysaccharides as raw materials for porous scaffolds, as well as the most common processing pathways to obtain the adequate textural properties, allowing the integration and attachment of cells. The second approach focuses on the tunable characteristics of the synthetic matrix, emphasizing the effect of their mechanical properties and the modification with conducting polymers in the cell response. The use and influence of polysaccharide-based porous materials as drug delivery systems for biochemical stimulation of cells is also described. Overall, engineered biomaterials are proposed as an effective strategy to improve in vitro tissue regeneration and future research directions of modified polysaccharide-based materials in the biomedical field are suggested.

The Era of Biomaterials: Smart Implants?

“…These matrices can be aerogels or cryogels; both are obtained from a wet gel, from which the liquid phase is removed and replaced with gas without destroying the solid structure. The difference between the two is the technique for drying the gel; to obtain an aerogel, supercritical drying is carried out with a fluid such as CO 2 . Examples of aerogels are those using cellulose, nitrocellulose, gelatin, chitosan, starch, and pectin.…”

“…The difference between the two is the technique for drying the gel; to obtain an aerogel, supercritical drying is carried out with a fluid such as CO 2 . 11 Examples of aerogels are those using cellulose, nitrocellulose, gelatin, chitosan, starch, and pectin. Cryogels are obtained by freeze-drying, where the solvent is initially crystallized at low temperatures and then sublimated; these have a larger pore size (macropores, > 50 nm) compared to aerogels (mesopores, 2−50 nm).…”

Electro-responsive polymer-based platforms for electrostimulation of cells

“…Thus, it properly deliveries electrical signals to cells and provides a suitable environment to accommodate cells and support their metabolic activities promptly. 1,5,[59][60][61][62] Several electro-responsive polymers are used in the development of advanced conductive cell culture/tissue engineering scaffolds, including those from the conjugated polymer family poly(pyrrole) (PPy), [63][64][65][66] polyaniline (PANI), [67][68][69][70][71] poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT)), [72][73][74][75] and polysaccharides (chitosan (CS)), [76][77][78][79][80][81][82] hyaluronic acid (HA), 83 and alginate (ALG). 84,85 Conductive scaffolds are also commonly obtained by combining highly conductive carbon-based materials (e.g., carbon nanotubes (CNTs), [86][87][88][89] multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), 79,90,91 graphene (GR), [92][93][94] graphene oxide (GO) 95 and reduced graphene oxide (rGO)) 96,97 with non-conductive polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), collagen and its derivatives.…”

“…Thus, it properly delivers electrical signals to cells and provides a suitable environment to accommodate cells and support their metabolic activities promptly. 1,5,59–62…”

Special Issue: Biopolymers in Drug Delivery and Regenerative Medicine

“…Advantageous uses of biopolymers as cell scaffolds or for extracellular stimulation were presented in this Special Issue for the development of diverse strategies and implant systems in the regenerative medicine field. In a review article by Alvarado-Hidalgo et al [ 9 ], the recent uses and fabrication methods of biopolymers for extracellular biochemical stimulation of cells as biomimetic 3D scaffold systems were presented. The potential modulation of the extracellular environment through mechanical, electrical, and biochemical stimulation was introduced, with a particular focus on biophysical and biochemical cues of cells that drive their molecular reprogramming.…”