Removal of natural free estrogens and estrogen conjugates in a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) was investigated and analyzed by GC-MS, in which estrogen conjugates were first transformed to their corresponding free estrogens with an acid solvolysis procedure before their analysis. Natural free estrogens, E1-3-sulfate (E1-3S), and E3-3-sulfate (E3-3S) were detected with high concentrations in both the influent and effluent of the primary settling tank (PS), while no estrogen glucuronides were detected in any of the monitored wastewater samples. Regarding their removal efficiencies, all were almost completely removed, except for E1 with only a minor decrease. The estrogenic/androgenic removal of the same WWTP was also evaluated with estrogen receptor (androgen receptor) (ER (AR))-binding assays, in which the removal efficiencies for E2 equivalents (EEQ) or testosterone equivalents (TEQ) were 68.5 and 72.2%. In addition, the chemically calculated EEQ from natural estrogens were about 20.6-39.3% that of the ER-binding assay, in which E3 contributed the biggest proportion in both the influent and PS, while the calculated value of E1 increased from only 6.7% in the influent to as high as 20.6% in the effluent.
IntroductionRegarding possible adverse effects on humans and wildlife, endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) have been extensively monitored and detected in different environmental samples [1][2][3][4][5]. In municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), natural estrogens are regarded as one of the most important sources, which have been widely studied [6][7][8]. Although estrogens in human urine were mainly in their sulfate/glucuronide conjugates [9], they were believed to have been bio-transformed to their free estrogens by fecal bacteria before they reach WWTPs [10]. However, much recent studies have shown that estrogen conjugates existed not only in the influent of WWTPs, but also in the effluent [11][12][13]. As estrogen conjugates in effluents with low estrogenic potencies will be further bio-transformed to their free estrogens after their entry into the receiving bodies. These conjugates can be expected to act with the same function as their corresponding free estrogens in the effluent, which may have adverse effects on the aquatic organisms. Therefore, removal performance for both free estrogens and their conjugates in wastewater by WWTPs should be evaluated.Although LC-MS/MS has been applied to environmental samples for simultaneous analysis of free estrogens and their conjugates [11][12][13], it is not as widely used as GC-MS due to its higher price. Moreover, as estrogen conjugates are highly polar compounds, purification procedures to handle them in wastewater samples were complex or the recovery efficiencies were very poor [13][14][15][16]. Analytical methods for estrogen conjugates by LC-MS/MS without purification procedures were also available with a low detection limit, but on these occasions ion suppression phenomena are likely to occur [17,18]. In a previous work, simultaneous anal...