Sharpening Working Memory With Real-Time Electrophysiological Brain Signals: Which Neurofeedback Paradigms Work?

Abstract

Growing evidence supports the idea that the ultimate biofeedback is to reward sensory pleasure (e.g., enhanced visual clarity) in real-time to neural circuits that are associated with a desired performance, such as excellent memory retrieval. Neurofeedback is biofeedback that uses real-time sensory reward to brain activity associated with a certain performance (e.g., accurate and fast recall). Working memory is a key component of human intelligence. The challenges are in our current limited understanding of neurocognitive dysfunctions as well as in technical difficulties for closed-loop feedback in true real-time. Here we review recent advancements of real time neurofeedback to improve memory training in healthy young and older adults. With new advancements in neuromarkers of specific neurophysiological functions, neurofeedback training should be better targeted beyond a single frequency approach to include frequency interactions and event-related potentials. Our review confirms the positive trend that neurofeedback training mostly works to improve memory and cognition to some extent in most studies. Yet, the training typically takes multiple weeks with 2–3 sessions per week. We review various neurofeedback reward strategies and outcome measures. A well-known issue in such training is that some people simply do not respond to neurofeedback. Thus, we also review the literature of individual differences in psychological factors e.g., placebo effects and so-called “BCI illiteracy” (Brain Computer Interface illiteracy). We recommend the use of Neural modulation sensitivity or BCI insensitivity in the neurofeedback literature. Future directions include much needed research in mild cognitive impairment, in non-Alzheimer’s dementia populations, and neurofeedback using EEG features during resting and sleep for memory enhancement and as sensitive outcome measures.

Accelerating P300-based neurofeedback training for attention enhancement using iterative learning control: a randomised controlled trial

“…For instance, the alpha band (7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13), primarily observed in posterior brain regions, is associated with relaxed wakefulness, and a decrease in alpha activity is linked to improved concentration and sustained attention [12]. The sensorimotor rhythm (SMR), a sub-band of the beta band (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) and found as oscillations between 12 and 15 Hz over the sensorimotor cortex, is also associated with attention, with its upregulation frequently targeted [13]. Additionally, the theta band (5-7 Hz) is frequently used in NFB training due to its association with memory [14].…”

“…Studies targeting these frequency bands in EEG-NFB have shown promising effects on cognitive processes in both healthy young and elderly adults, as well as individuals with mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Typically, NFB training involves 5 to 30 sessions, lasting 10 to 90 min each, and is conducted weekly or several times a week [14][15][16].…”

Effectiveness of Electroencephalography Neurofeedback for Improving Working Memory and Episodic Memory in the Elderly: A Meta-Analysis

“…A clinical trial reported a positive effect of theta-down NFB on learning memory and overall cognitive performance in patients with Alzheimer’s disease [ 14 ]. Several systemic reviews provided evidence of NFB in the elderly [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Jiang et al [ 15 ] reviewed 13 clinical trials of NFB on working memory function in elderly people (including healthy, MCI, and stroke), and 11 trials reported positive findings.…”

“…Several systemic reviews provided evidence of NFB in the elderly [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Jiang et al [ 15 ] reviewed 13 clinical trials of NFB on working memory function in elderly people (including healthy, MCI, and stroke), and 11 trials reported positive findings. Laborda–Sánchez et al [ 16 ] reviewed 14 clinical trials of NFB on aging-associated cognitive decline, and they reported that NFB improved memory in healthy and unhealthy participants, mainly when the theta waves and SMR were trained.…”

Analysis of the Relationship Between Motor Imagery and Age-Related Fatigue for CNN Classification of the EEG Data

“…In the cerebral cortex, MI and motor execution of the same action have similar activity patterns. The goal of motor-imagery BCIs (MI-BCIs) is to control an external object by inducing and modulating the brainwaves of interest during the training sessions so that the BCI system can determine the user's intention in real-time in testing sessions (Jiang et al, 2022 ). Several studies have explored the influences of aging on different aspects of MI, such as vividness (Malouin et al, 2010 ), working memory (Schotta, 2012 ), and the temporal performance of the MI (Personnier et al, 2010 ).…”