Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices.

Swim, Janet K.; Aikin, Kathryn J.; Hall, Wayne S.; Hunter, Barbara A.

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199

Cited by 1,180 publications

(1,285 citation statements)

References 54 publications

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“…Whereas Eagly and Mladinic found the AWS to be uncorrelated with general attitudes toward women (as measured by the same semantic differential scales used in Studies 4-6), we have demonstrated that the ASI subscales are related to both attitudes toward and stereotypes about women. Swim et al?s (1995) Modem Sexism and Tougas et al?s (1995) Neo-Sexism scales measure issues similar to those of the AWS, but in a more subtle manner that reflects the greater egalitarianism toward women that has come about in recent decades. Our finding that HS correlates strongly with the Modem Sexism scale, whereas BS does not, supports the notion that the beliefs the Modern Sexism scale taps do reflect hostility toward women.…”

Section: The Asi and Other Measures Of Sexismmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism.

Glick

Fiske

1996

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

3,410

246

4,959

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The authors present a theory of sexism formulated as ambivalence toward women and validate a corresponding measure, the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI). The ASI taps 2 positively correlated components of sexism that nevertheless represent opposite evaluative orientations toward women: sexist antipathy or Hostile Sexism (HS) and a subjectively positive ( for sexist men ) orientation toward women, Benevolent Sexism (BS). HS and BS are hypothesized to encompass 3 sources of male ambivalence: Paternalism, Gender Differentiation, and Heterosexuality. Six ASI studies on 2,250 respondents established convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. Overall ASI scores predict ambivalent attitudes toward women, the HS scale correlates with negative attitudes toward and stereotypes about women, and the BS scale (for nonstudent men only) correlates with positive attitudes toward and stereotypes about women. A copy of the ASI is provided, with scoring instructions, as a tool for further explorations of sexist ambivalence."If woman had no existence save in the fiction written by men, one would imagine her a person Is sexism a form of prejudice? Although the question might appear absurd, consider Allport's (1954) influential definition of ethnic prejudice. Prejudice, Allport wrote, "is an antipathy based upon a faulty and inflexible generalization" (p. 9). The existence of prejudice is commonly indexed by measures of antipathy, such as social distance (e.g., Crosby, Bromley, & Saxe, 1980) and negative stereotypes (e.g., Sigall & Page, 1971 ). Relationships between men and women, however, do not easily fit the mold of ethnic prejudice, at the very least because no other two groups have been as intimately connected (S. T. Fiske & Stevens, 1993). Furthermore, cultural images of women from ancient to modern times are not uniformly negative; women have been revered as well as reviled (Eagly & Mladinic, 1993;Guttentag & Secord, 1983;Tavris & Wade, 1984 Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Peter Glick, Department of Psychology, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wisconsin 54912-0599. Electronic mail may be sent via the Internet to peter.s.glick@lawrence.edu 491 indeed a prejudice, but in this article we argue that it is, and probably always has been, a special case of prejudice marked by a deep ambivalence, rather than a uniform antipathy,,toward women. Our goals are to: (a) reveal the multidimensional nature of sexism, (b) offer a theoretical and empirical analysis of the sources and nature of men's ambivalence toward women, (c) compare our conception of ambivalent sexism with other theories of ambivalence (including ambivalent racism), and (d) provide a validated measure of ambivalent sexism. Hostile and Benevolent SexismSexism has typically been conceptualized as a reflection of hostility toward women. This view neglects a significant aspect of sexism: the subjectively positive feelings toward women that often go hand in hand with sexist antipathy. We view sexism as a multidimensional construct that encom...

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Section: The Asi and Other Measures Of Sexismmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism.

Glick

Fiske

1996

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

3,410

246

4,959

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…All items described rights that had historically been statutorily denied to trans persons in the UK (See Table 4 for items). The final three measures were standardized prejudice scales; the short form of Herek's (1984Herek's ( , 1993 Attitudes to Lesbians and Gay men scale (ATLG), Swim, Aikin, Hall and Hunter's (1995) Modern Sexism scale (MS) and Altemeyer's (1996) Right-Wing Authoritarianism scale (RWA). ATLG included five items about gay men and five items about lesbians, MS included eight items, and RWA included thirty.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom

Tee

Hegarty

2006

J. Community. Appl. Soc. Psychol.

132

136

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Although there is considerable evidence that trans persons are victims of discrimination, social psychologists have rarely explored prejudice against this minority group. We extrapolated from models of heterosexism to test hypotheses about support for and opposition to trans persons' civil rights. Opposition to trans persons civil rights among 151 participants was correlated with heterosexism, authoritarianism, a belief that there are only two sexes, beliefs that gender is biologically based and several demographic variables. Linear regression showed that heterosexism, authoritarianism, contact with sexual minorities and beliefs in biological gender predicted unique variance in opposition to trans persons' civil rights. Differences and similarities between prejudice towards sexual and gender minorities are discussed.

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“…Men and women differ in their beliefs about the persistence and origins of gender inequality in society ostensibly due to differences in personal experiences with gender discrimination (Manza and Brooks 1998). On average, men are more likely to attribute gender-based inequality to individual women and their personal choices, whereas women are more likely to attribute inequality to systematic discrimination against women (Swim et al 1995). These beliefs about the origins of gender-based inequality-often referred to as modern sexism-shape policy attitudes.…”

Section: Origins Of Gender Gaps In Issue Attitudesmentioning

confidence: 99%

American Party Women

Barnes

Cassese

2016

Political Research Quarterly

109

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ArticleTraditionally, women were more politically conservative than men. Yet, in the early 1980s, women began realigning, shifting to the left of men and reversing the gender gap in developed democracies across the globe (BoxSteffensmeier, De Boef, and Lin 2004;Inglehart and Norris 2003). Today, women in the United States are more likely to identify with the Democratic Party, vote for Democratic Party candidates, and hold liberal positions on social issues. Although scholars have devoted considerable attention to understanding the gender gap in public opinion, existing research focuses almost exclusively on average differences between men and womenemphasizing women's liberal tendencies and defining women's political identity almost entirely in liberal terms. While women's greater average liberalism is well established empirically, approximately one in four women identify with the Republican Party-a figure that translates into millions of American women who buck this liberal trend (Deckman 2016). Because existing research has focused on average differences between men and women, we know little about sources of heterogeneity among women.Does the gender gap extend to the Republican Party, with Republican women holding more liberal views than their male counterparts? To date, most research about Republican women has focused on the elite level, investigating factors like party structure, activists and donors, conservative women's groups, and candidates for political office (Cooperman and Crowder-Meyer 2015;Thomsen 2015). Comparatively little research has considered the attitudes and issue preferences of Republican women in the electorate. 1 In recent years, the United States has seen a rise in high-profile Republican women running for office and the development of a conservative women's movement (Schreiber 2008(Schreiber , 2014. The surge in conservative appeals to women, coupled with the increased salience of and polarization on "women's issues"-for example, the Mommy Wars and the Republican War on Women-requires that scholars revisit the conventional wisdom about women's political identities.Building on the burgeoning body of research on partisan sorting, we develop expectations regarding the intersection between gender and party. Theories of partisan sorting suggest that women and men sort themselves into the party that best represents their views-such that the AbstractResearch on the gender gap in American politics has focused on average differences between male and female voters. This has led to an underdeveloped understanding of sources of heterogeneity among women and, in particular, a poor understanding of the political preferences of Republican women. We argue that although theories of ideological sorting suggest gender gaps should exist primarily between political parties, gender socialization theories contend that critical differences lie at the intersection of gender and party such that gender differences likely persist within political parties. Using survey data from the 2012 American National Election ...

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Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices.

Cited by 1,180 publications

References 54 publications

The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism.

The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism.

Predicting opposition to the civil rights of trans persons in the United Kingdom

American Party Women

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