Sex Differences Are Here to Stay: Relevance to Prenatal Care

Inkster, Amy M.; Fernández-Boyano, Icíar; Robinson, Wendy P.

doi:10.3390/jcm10133000

Cited by 31 publications

(27 citation statements)

References 193 publications

(261 reference statements)

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“…Four models were constructed to investigate the associations between maternal variables and birth weight by sex of newborns: model 1 included only maternal age; model 2 was adjusted for biological factors (gestational age and stillbirth history); model 3 included those variables analyzed in model 2 as well as demographic factors (marital status and place of residence); and model 4 additionally included education, an important social factor. All the analyses were conducted including stratification for parity and sex of neonates according to the approach reported elsewhere [3,7,29,30].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Inequalities in Birth Weight in Relation to Maternal Factors: A Population-Based Study of 3,813,757 Live Births

Genowska

Motkowski

Strukčinskaitė

et al. 2022

IJERPH

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Background: Despite numerous studies of women having children later in life, evidence of the relationship between maternal factors and newborn outcomes in Central and Eastern European countries is limited. This study aimed to examine the association between maternal age, biological determinants, including parity and sex of the newborn, demographic and social background, and birth weight in 3.8 million singleton live births in Poland. Methods: The effect of maternal age on birth weight (in grams and Z-scores) adjusted for confounders was assessed using Generalized Linear Models. Results: The mean (±SD) birth weights of neonates born to primiparous women and multiparous women were 3356.3 ± 524.9 g and 3422.7 ± 538.6 g, respectively, which corresponded to a Z-score of −0.07 ± 0.96 and 0.14 ± 1.00, respectively (p ≤ 0.001). After controlling for biological, demographic, and social factors, a significant decrease in birth weight was found for primiparous women of the age group ≥30 years and multiparous women aged ≥35 years compared to the age group of 25–29 years. The lowest neonatal birth weight was observed in the case of women aged ≥45 years. Confounders did not affect birth weight Z-scores among primiparous women, whereas among multiparous women, together with educational factors, they reversed Z-scores from positive to negative values. The lower birth weight of neonates was overall associated with lower maternal education. Conclusions: Regardless of parity, advanced maternal age is strongly associated with a decreased neonatal birth weight, implying complications in early pregnancy and the antenatal period as well as obstetric complications. Counseling to support women’s family planning decisions and improving women’s education during their reproductive age may help to alleviate unfavorable newborn outcomes.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Inequalities in Birth Weight in Relation to Maternal Factors: A Population-Based Study of 3,813,757 Live Births

Genowska

Motkowski

Strukčinskaitė

et al. 2022

IJERPH

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“…Later, fetal sex hormones, foremost testosterone, contribute to the sex dimorphisms. Several mechanisms are proposed on how sex chromosomes set the first milestone of sexual dimorphism in terms of differential gene expression (reviewed in [ 134 ]): (a) Female-biased expression of X chromosome genes; (b) Escape from X-chromosome inactivation; (c) Mosaic X chromosome Inactivation; and (d) X-chromosome dosage in female fetuses and (e) Y chromosome gene expression in male fetuses, including SRY . Thus, the distinct expression of sex chromosome-linked genes leads to differences in autosomal gene expression [ 135 , 136 , 137 ].…”

Section: Hormonal and Molecular Causes Underlying Fetal And Placental Sexual Dimorphismsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Placental Endocrine Activity: Adaptation and Disruption of Maternal Glucose Metabolism in Pregnancy and the Influence of Fetal Sex

Stern

Schwarz

Moser

et al. 2021

IJMS

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The placenta is an endocrine fetal organ, which secretes a plethora of steroid- and proteo-hormones, metabolic proteins, growth factors, and cytokines in order to adapt maternal physiology to pregnancy. Central to the growth of the fetus is the supply with nutrients, foremost with glucose. Therefore, during pregnancy, maternal insulin resistance arises, which elevates maternal blood glucose levels, and consequently ensures an adequate glucose supply for the developing fetus. At the same time, maternal β-cell mass and function increase to compensate for the higher insulin demand. These adaptations are also regulated by the endocrine function of the placenta. Excessive insulin resistance or the inability to increase insulin production accordingly disrupts physiological modulation of pregnancy mediated glucose metabolism and may cause maternal gestational diabetes (GDM). A growing body of evidence suggests that this adaptation of maternal glucose metabolism differs between pregnancies carrying a girl vs. pregnancies carrying a boy. Moreover, the risk of developing GDM differs depending on the sex of the fetus. Sex differences in placenta derived hormones and bioactive proteins, which adapt and modulate maternal glucose metabolism, are likely to contribute to this sexual dimorphism. This review provides an overview on the adaptation and maladaptation of maternal glucose metabolism by placenta-derived factors, and highlights sex differences in this regulatory network.

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“…In addition to genetics, in utero exposure to a multitude of maternal exposures, including air pollution, pesticides, Rubella infection, and obesity increase risk for ASD in the offspring ( Lasalle J. M., 2013 ; Bolte et al, 2019 ). Such in utero exposures are preferentially harmful to male fetuses ( Inkster et al, 2021 ). Epigenetic mechanisms that regulate gene expression through changes to chromatin and DNA methylation act at the interface of genetic and environmental factors for ASD risk and sex differences in ASD.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

X Chromosome Inactivation Timing is Not eXACT: Implications for Autism Spectrum Disorders

LaSalle

2022

Front. Genet.

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The etiology of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is complex, involving different combinations of genetic and environmental factors. My lab’s approach has been to investigate DNA methylation as a tractable genome-wide modification at the interface of these complex interactions, reflecting past and future events in the molecular pathogenesis of ASD. Since X-linked genes were enriched in DNA methylation differences discovered from cord blood from newborns later diagnosed with ASD, this has prompted me to review and revisit the recent advancements in the field of X chromosome inactivation (XCI), particularly in humans and other primates. In this Perspective, I compare XCI mechanisms in different mammalian species, including the finding of the noncoding transcript XACT associated with X chromosome erosion in human pluripotent stem cells and recent findings from non-human primate post-implantation embryos. I focus on the experimentally challenging peri- and post-implantation stages of human development when the timing of XCI is prolonged and imprecise in humans. Collectively, this research has raised some important unanswered questions involving biased sex ratios in human births and the male bias in the incidence of ASD.

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Sex Differences Are Here to Stay: Relevance to Prenatal Care

Cited by 31 publications

References 193 publications

Inequalities in Birth Weight in Relation to Maternal Factors: A Population-Based Study of 3,813,757 Live Births

Inequalities in Birth Weight in Relation to Maternal Factors: A Population-Based Study of 3,813,757 Live Births

Placental Endocrine Activity: Adaptation and Disruption of Maternal Glucose Metabolism in Pregnancy and the Influence of Fetal Sex

X Chromosome Inactivation Timing is Not eXACT: Implications for Autism Spectrum Disorders

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