Severity and Reasons Behind Religious Intolerance in Pakistan: Perceptions of Sunnis, Shias, Ahmadis, and Christians

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate a perceived severity of religious intolerance, and reasons behind it, among different religious groups in Pakistan. A questionnaire measuring religious intolerance was completed by 199 university students (females M = 23.8 yrs, SD 5.3, and males M = 24.6 yrs, SD 5.6) from four religious groups: Sunni, Shia, Ahmadi, and Christian. Questions regarding the severity of intolerance were included as well as the following seven scales measuring possible causes for it: impact of the school curriculum, lack of knowledge about other groups, impact of hate literature, lack of social justice, family background and peer pressure, media impact, as well as external power influence and history. Respondents of all groups agreed upon the severe level of religious intolerance towards Ahmadis. Regarding the other religious groups, opinions differed. Sunni respondents rated the seven causes for religious intolerance as lower than the others. Sunni and Shia respondents rated the impact of the school curriculum as the significantly most important reason behind religious intolerance, whereas the Ahmadis and Christians rated hate literature as the most important reason. The results suggest that there is a need for further research into social factors that could reduce religious intolerance in Pakistan. Views of different religious groups need to be taken in consideration.

Demographics and Religious Tolerance Among Youth: Moderating Role of Education

“…This finding is consistent with the results of the previous studies as survey conducted by Kalin and Siddiqui (2014) on a random sample of Punjab province of Pakistan, reported significant differences among four major sects (Sunni Muslims, Shia Muslims, Christians, and Ahmadis) in respect of tolerance, however nonsignificant differences were seen between the two sects (Sunni and Shia) when it comes to acceptance and tolerance of the religious beliefs of Christine and Ahmadis. The nature of the school curriculum, different instructional methods between madrassa and English medium schools, media, and hate literature were reported factors of the varying levels of religious tolerance among the abovementioned four sectarian groups (Khan et al, 2023). Adherence to a scriptural-conservative understanding of Islam fosters social intolerance of outgroups, while religious devotion may increase intolerance of non-scriptural believers (Altinoglu, 2017).…”

“…Only a few studies have focused on religious tolerance. There is a dire need to highlight determinants of religious tolerance in Pakistan (Arshad, 2023;Hussain et al, 2021;Khan et al, 2023;Suhaib & Aziz, 2023). Manzoor et al (2022) argue that fostering religious tolerance is crucial in addressing social tensions, religious conflicts and developing a peaceful society for social development.…”

Harmony in virtual space: Forum Kerukunan Umat Beragama (FKUB) development communication in creating digital literacy based on religious moderation Pusat Pengajian Komunikasi, Universiti Sains Malaysia

“…The potential for hate speech can lead to segregation in society due to extremism and intolerance (Khan et al, 2023;Khumaini et al, 2023). Especially in the digital era, hate speech exists in massive numbers so that there is often uproar in the virtual space.…”