Gender differences in regard to aggressive behaviour were investigated in a series of studies of schoolchildren of different age cohorts: 8‐year‐olds (N = 85), 11‐year‐olds (N = 167), and 15‐year‐olds (N = 127). Different types of aggressive behaviour were measured with peer nomination techniques, supported by self‐ratings. The social structure of the peer groups were also studied. The results of the 11‐year‐old cohort were previously presented by Lagerspetz et al. [1988; Aggressive Behavior 14:403–414], but they are compared here with the other age groups. The principal finding was that girls of the two older cohorts overall make greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas boys tend to employ direct means. Previously, the main difference between the genders has been thought to be that boys use physical aggressive strategies, while girls prefer verbal ones. Our studies suggest that the differentiation between direct and indirect strategies of aggression presents a more exact picture. Indirect aggressive strategies were not yet fully developed among the 8‐year‐old girls, but they were already prominent among the 11‐year‐old girls. Aggressive behaviour was assessed overall by the children themselves to be the highest in this age group.

No abstract

Gender differences regarding aggressive behaviour were investigated in 167 school children, 11 to 12 years of age, through peer‐rating techniques supported by self‐ratings and interviews. The social structure of the peer groups also was studied. The principal finding was that girls made greater use of indirect means of aggression, whereas the boys tended to employ direct means. Gender differences in verbal aggression were less pronounced. The social structure of peer groups was found to be tighter among girls, making it easier for them to exploit relationships and harm their victims by indirect manipulative aggression. Because indirect aggression has rarely been satisfactorily studied with tests of aggression, this finding may help to explain 1) the generally lower correlation found between peer‐rated and self‐rated aggression in girls than among boys (indirect means not being so readily recognized by the subject as a kind of aggression) and 2) the low stability of aggressiveness in girls often found in developmental studies.

No abstract

Harassment among university employees (n = 338; 162 males, 176 females) was investigated by help of the Work Harassment Scale (WHS), developed for the study. Nineteen cases of severe victimization by harassment were interviewed. Subjectively experienced symptoms of depression and anxiety were estimated with two subscales form SCL‐90 [Derogatis LR, Lipman RS, Covi L (1973): Psychopharmacology Bulletin 9: 13‐28] and aggressiveness was measured with the Buss‐Durkee Inventory [Buss A, Durkee A (1957): Journal of Consulting Psychology 21: 343–349]. Females experienced themselves as significantly more harassed than men. Position was related to harassment: individuals in superior positions harassed more often than individuals in subordinate positions. Less victimization by harassment was experienced among individuals involved in research and teaching than among individuals involved in administration and service. The experienced reasons for harassment were predominantly envy and competition about jobs and status. In 25% of cases, victims felt that their sex might be a reason. Victims of harassment experienced higher levels of depression, anxiety, and aggression than others. The interviewed cases showed evidence of symptoms reminiscent of the post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.