Phenanthrolines are
a class of ligands known to bind with many
different metal cations to form complexes. The aromatic backbone of
phenanthroline also allows for preferential adsorption on few-layer
graphene (FLG) films via π–π stacking. Here we
investigate the effects of adsorption and the resulting steric restrictions
on the binding ability of four different phenanthroline derivatives:
phenanthroline, neocuproine, bathophenanthroline, and bathocuproine.
In solution, a wide range of metal cations tested formed complexes
with these ligands, but only Cu2+ and Ag+ showed
evidence of binding to ligands adsorbed onto FLG, as measured by the
chemiresistive response of the films. The substituents present on
each ligand affected the magnitude of the response in different ways.
Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to study
two different systems in more detail: iron with phenanthroline, which
shows a response in solution (ferroin) but not on the FLG surface
(purported monoligand complex), and copper with neocuproine, which
responds both in solution (bis[neocuproine]copper(I)) and on the FLG
surface (monoligand complex). Raman and XPS data indicate complexing
of copper by surface-bound ligands. Theoretical calculations show
that the copper–neocuproine monocomplex has a higher adsorption
energy and binding energy to a graphene surface than the iron–phenanthroline
monocomplex. The reduction of copper(II) to copper(I) by the surface-bound
neocuproine further results in a stronger charge transfer response
from the sensor. The results of this study provide insights into the
mechanisms of solid-state sensing of metal cations for water quality
detection based on steric and electrochemical restrictions induced
by surface adsorption.