Sectarian identity and national identity in the Middle East

Abstract

This article looks at modern sectarian (here referring to Sunni/Shi'a) identities and their interaction with nationalism in the Middle East. In doing so I make three interrelated claims: 1) the term ‘sectarianism’ is distortive and analytically counterproductive. A better understanding of modern sectarian identity requires us to jettison the term. 2) Once discarded, our focus can then shift to sectarian identity: how it is constructed, perceived, utilized and so forth. A holistic understanding of sectarian identity must recognize the multiple fields upon which it is constructed and contested. The model adopted here frames sectarian identity as simultaneously operating on four fields: doctrinal, subnational, transnational and, crucially for our purposes, the national dimension. 3) Thirdly, this article challenges the assumptions regarding national and sectarian identities in the modern Middle East. Contrary to conventional wisdom, modern sectarian identities are deeply embedded in the prism of the nation‐state and are inextricably linked to nationalism and national identity. The article will rely primarily on the example of modern Iraq but, as will be seen, the Iraqi example is significantly echoed in the cases of Bahrain, Syria and Lebanon.

The international sources of prejudice against Shi‘a in the Middle East and North Africa: Original survey evidence from Morocco

“…Notes 1. Haddad (2020a) provides a pivotal analysis of the problems of using the term 'sectarianism'. In what follows, we recognize the term's loose nature.…”

Beyond the beyond(s): On the (many) third way(s) beyond primordialism and instrumentalism in the study of sectarianism

“…In between the above two kinds of ambitions for the study of sectarianism there is a third path for those adopting a more mid‐range ambition. Instead of asking whether this or that bid for “third way” as such is superior for understanding sectarianism generally, or how a specific event best can be explained in its complexity, the interest here does instead concern how one can account for specific kinds of actors, phenomena, or “layers of sectarianism.” (see also Haddad, ). For instance, if sectarianism comes in more shapes as suggested by among others Haddad (), Weiss (), and Hinnebusch (), the fruitfulness of different theories will most likely vary.…”

“…In addition to these increasingly sophisticated debates on how to conceptualize and map sectarianism in the Middle East, another prominent theme concerns the theoretical question about the causes and consequences of the (re)emergence and evolution of Middle Eastern sectarianism, that is, what are the key drivers (religious, political, and economic factors), who are the most important actors (elites vs. ordinary people, politicians vs. religious figures), how far is it necessary to go back in history (e.g., 680, 765, 1770, 1860, 1979, 2003, and 2011), and at which level of analysis should attention mainly be directed (e.g., the global, regional, state‐institutional, regime/elite, or society levels; see also Haddad, )? Much debate in recent years has revolved around this question of how sectarianism can be explained theoretically.…”

Religious Identities versus National Identity: an assessment of the views of syrian refugees in Brazil about National Identity Consciousness | Identidades Religiosas versus Identidade Nacional: uma avaliação sa visão dos refugiados sírios no Brasil sobre a Consciência de Identidade Nacional

“…Some authors consider that the crisis reflects a contested and problematic national identity. However, this argument is often a consequence of a superficial comprehension of the meanings and the basic features of social identities -especially national and religious identities (Haddad, 2019;. As Haddad (2019) argues, identities are not immutable and excluding collective attributes.…”

“…However, this argument is often a consequence of a superficial comprehension of the meanings and the basic features of social identities -especially national and religious identities (Haddad, 2019;. As Haddad (2019) argues, identities are not immutable and excluding collective attributes. In fact, societies are permeated by identities that generally overlap each other and whose significance depends on the social and political context.…”