Satiety: have we neglected dietary non-nutrients?

Abstract

Satiety, which is the inhibition of eating following the end of a meal, is influenced by a number of food characteristics, including compositional and structural factors. An increased understanding of these factors and the mechanisms whereby they exert their effects on satiety may offer a food-based approach to weight management. Water and gas, which are often neglected in nutrition, are major components of many foods and contribute to volume, and to sensory and other characteristics. A review of previous short-term studies that evaluated the effects of water or gas in foods on satiety showed that while satiety was generally increased, effects on subsequent intakes were not always apparent. These studies were diverse in terms of design, timings and food matrices, which precludes definitive conclusions. However, the results indicate that solids may be more effective at increasing satiety than liquids, but gas may be as effective as water. Although increased gastric distension may be the main mechanism underlying these effects, pre-ingestive and ingestive impacts on cognitive, anticipatory and sensory responses also appear to be involved. Furthermore, there is limited evidence that water on its own may be effective at increasing satiety and decreasing intakes when drunk before, but not with, a meal. Longer-term extrapolation suggests that increasing food volumes with water or gas may offer weight-management strategies. However, from a practical viewpoint, the effects of water and gas on satiety may be best exploited by using these non-nutrients to manipulate perceived portion sizes, without increasing energy contents.Food gas: Food water: Food volume: Energy intake: Portion size Obesity is a major public health issue, which occurs when energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, leading to a chronic positive energy balance. However, energy balance is under complex control, and over 100 interacting factors have been identified and described in a series of obesity system maps, which have energy balance at their core (1) . A key variable in energy balance is the degree of primary appetite control, which has physiological, psychological and behavioural determinants (1) . Drugs that suppress appetite and increase satiety offer one strategy to combat obesity (1) . However, compositional and structural variations between foods can lead to substantial differences in their effects on satiety (2) . An increased understanding of these compositional and structural factors and the mechanisms whereby they exert their effects on satiety may offer an alternative, food-based approach to weight management. Water and gas, which are the focus of this review, are major components of many foods, where they contribute to structure and texture, and also to sensory characteristics. However, as non-nutrients, water and gas are often neglected in nutrition. Following an overview of the assessment of satiety and the role of physiological and food factors in satiety, the water and gas contents of a range of foods are presented. Short-term studi...

Sustained hunger suppression from stable liquid food foams

“…Some part of the appetite‐reducing effects of foams might also be attributed to oral processing . Oral transit time, sip size, and eating frequency have been linked to eating behavior, but these studies refer mostly to the effects on satiation (within‐meal) or ad libitum food intake (e.g., refs.…”

“…Several mechanisms have been suggested to contribute to observed effects, such as pre-ingestive sensory and cognitive responses, rate of ingestion and oral processing time, gastric distension, gastric emptying, and intragastric distribution (9,10,(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21). However, it is not known to what extent these are specifically linked to the effects of aeration on satiety, and over what timeframes.…”

“…One potential approach to increase the satiety effects of foods is the incorporation of zero‐calorie fillers, i.e., water or gas . Additions of air or carbonation to test products shortly (≤ 30 min) before meals have been reported to acutely increase satiety, though with mixed effects on subsequent energy intake .…”

Effects of learning and food form on energy intake and appetitive responses

“…Food choice, eating frequency, and portion size are largely driven by cues learned through prior dietary experiences, where cognitive impressions acquire predictive value for the likely post-ingestive consequences of ingesting a given food or meal (Wooley 1972; Mattes 2005; Welch 2011; Cassady, Considine et al 2012). Food choice and eating behaviors are frequently driven by personality traits and conditioned behaviors as well (Mela 1999).…”

Foods for appetite control: Can carbohydrates stimulate the ileal brake and enhance satiety?

“…Whereas inter-meal satiety is the feeling of fullness which develops after the ingestion of food, the onset of the following meal is affected by the state of satiety and food consumption may be reduced at the next eating occasion, thereby regulating meal frequency , Welch, 2011.…”