Effects of learning and food form on energy intake and appetitive responses

Abstract

Energy-yielding beverages reportedly contribute to positive energy balance uniquely. They are highly consumed and evoke weaker satiety signaling and dietary energy compensation than solid foods of the same energy content. This study measured the contribution of learning to appetitive sensations and adjustments of energy intake for preloads varying in energy content and food form in lean and obese adults. One-hundred seven participants received four preload trials before and after a dietary intervention in this randomized cross-over trial with the stipulation that lean and obese individuals were evenly assigned to each intervention. The study entailed monitoring appetitive sensations and daily energy intake after consumption of low and high energy beverage and solid food loads on weekly visit days. Preload testing was conducted at baseline, followed by daily ingestion of one load for 14 days and then retesting responses to the four treatments. Lean individuals compensated precisely for the high energy beverage and solid loads from the onset of the study, whereas the obese did not alter eating patterns after consuming the higher energy beverage load. The learning intervention did not have an effect on the responses to the preloads, as responses in both lean and obese participants did not differ from baseline values. Responses to personality and eating behavior questionnaires revealed differences between the lean and obese groups and weakly, but significantly, predicted challenge meal and total daily energy intake. These data suggest that lean and obese individuals respond to energy in beverage form differently, and this is not altered by purposeful daily exposure to loads varying in physical form and energy content for two weeks.

Estimated portion size versus actual intake of eight commonly consumed foods by healthy adults

“…More importantly, the suppression of the desire‐to‐eat sensation was significantly lower after apple juice consumption than solid apple pieces despite comparable energy intake. This observation is supported by the evidence that apples invoked greater satiety than apple juice, and liquids induce weaker appetitive effects . A smaller decrease in the desire‐to‐eat sensation after consumption of apple juice may lead to eating in the absence of hunger and hence pose a risk for positive energy balance and weight gain.…”

Predictive Validity of Image-Based Motivation-to-Eat Visual Analogue Scales in Normal Weight Children and Adolescents Aged 9–14 Years

“…'; 'Urge to eat'; and 'Preoccupation with thoughts of food' [2]. In recent years, variations of the original motivation-to-eat VAS have been used in appetite trials [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. Overall, paper-based VASs assessing motivation-to-eat show good within-subject reliability and predictive ability for subsequent food intake in adults [11,12].…”

Beverage Intake and Metabolic Syndrome Risk Over 14 Years: The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation

“…17,18 The mechanism underlying this association may involve incomplete dietary compensation for caloric beverages; if solid food intake is not fully reduced to offset calories consumed in liquid form, caloric beverage intake would ultimately promote positive energy balance, obesity, and obesity-related chronic diseases. 19,20 Conversely, consumption of water and low-calorie beverages such as unsweetened coffees and teas have been associated with decreased cardiometabolic risk, 15,21 possibly because they displace caloric beverages from the diet. The specific role of artificially-sweetened beverages in both obesity and cardiometabolic disease remains controversial, with cohort and intervention studies reporting both protective and harmful associations.…”