Rodent models of ketamine‐induced cystitis

Abstract

Aims Long‐term or recreational use of ketamine affects the urinary system and can result in ketamine‐induced cystitis (KIC). Rodent models of KIC are important to study KIC pathophysiology and are paramount to the future development of therapies for this painful condition. This review aims to provide a summary of rodent models of KIC, focusing on disease induction, experimental methods, and pathological features of the model. Method A literature search was performed using the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Pubmed database up to March 2021. 20 articles met the inclusion criteria and were finally selected. Results There are considerable variations in the rodent models used for studying KIC in terms of the strain of the animal being used; dose, duration, and route of ketamine administration to induce KIC, and assessment of pathological features. Conclusion KIC remains difficult to fully recapitulate in humans. Improved characterization of KIC models and the experimental parameters and meticulous discussion on translational limitations are required to improve the translational value of research using rodent models of KIC.

Specific Impacts of Ketamine on Bladder Dysfunction and Associated Histological Alterations in Rats—A Time Course Validation through Transmission Electron Microscopy

“…However, sustained exposure to ketamine might induce persistent inflammations mediated by neurogenic, IgE, or NOS-COX, tailed by collagen accumulation and fibrosis in the urinary bladder, which leads to the thickened bladder wall conditions [7]. Additionally, muscle hypertrophy, submucosal fibrosis, and alterations in the collagen muscle ratio are further common pathological attributes noted in KC patient bladders [14], which were found in the present study observations at different time courses.…”

Current approaches for the treatment of ketamine‐induced cystitis

“…However, there remains considerable variation in rodent models in terms of animal strain, dose and duration of ketamine administration and study outcomes. A recent review by Sultana et al 29 provides a summary of current rodent models of KIC but notes that the lack of a standardized KIC model makes it difficult to translate findings to clinical models. Therefore, creating an animal model of KIC and that is consistent across research groups is essential to effectively study KIC pathophysiology and to translate treatments into human studies.…”