Risky business: linkingToxoplasma gondiiinfection and entrepreneurship behaviours across individuals and countries

Abstract

Disciplines such as business and economics often rely on the assumption of rationality when explaining complex human behaviours. However, growing evidence suggests that behaviour may concurrently be influenced by infectious microorganisms. The protozoan infects an estimated 2 billion people worldwide and has been linked to behavioural alterations in humans and other vertebrates. Here we integrate primary data from college students and business professionals with national-level information on cultural attitudes towards business to test the hypothesis that infection influences individual- as well as societal-scale entrepreneurship activities. Using a saliva-based assay, we found that students ( = 1495) who tested IgG positive for exposure were 1.4× more likely to major in business and 1.7× more likely to have an emphasis in 'management and entrepreneurship' over other business-related emphases. Among professionals attending entrepreneurship events,-positive individuals were 1.8× more likely to have started their own business compared with other attendees ( = 197). Finally, after synthesizing and combining country-level databases on infection from the past 25 years with the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor of entrepreneurial activity, we found that infection prevalence was a consistent, positive predictor of entrepreneurial activity and intentions at the national scale, regardless of whether previously identified economic covariates were included. Nations with higher infection also had a lower fraction of respondents citing 'fear of failure' in inhibiting new business ventures. While correlational, these results highlight the linkage between parasitic infection and complex human behaviours, including those relevant to business, entrepreneurship and economic productivity.

Immunological Molecular Responses of Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells to Infection With Toxoplasma gondii

“…In Brazil, where extremely high rates of T. gondii infection are recorded, up to 17% of the population have ocular toxoplasmosis, while in countries with relatively low rates of infection, such as the United States, it is estimated that approximately 2% of persons have this condition (5). Toxoplasmosis also may be manifest as various neurological deficits, and associations between T. gondii infection and mental health—including psychiatric diseases and risk-taking behaviors—have been recognized recently (6, 7). Clinical disease is more common and more aggressive when contracted in utero , as well as in aged persons and individuals with compromised immunity (8–10).…”

Molecular Epizootiology of Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptosporidium parvum in the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) from Maine (USA)

“…Despite the lack of symptoms in those with good health, T. gondii is a significant threat to AIDS patients and otherwise immunosuppressed patients, as well as pregnant women [3]. Recently, T. gondii has attracted public attention due to numerous publications linking toxoplasmosis to mental disorders [4,5,6,7] and problematic behaviors (e.g., increased likelihood of risky road behaviors that have been associated with traffic accidents and ‘risk taking’ related to business decisions) [8,9]. Reports exist of T. gondii in marine mammals including sea otters ( Enhydra lutris ) [10], beluga whales ( Delphinapterus leucas ) [11].…”

Transcriptome Analysis of Testes and Uterus: Reproductive Dysfunction Induced by Toxoplasma gondii in Mice

“…In fact, about one third of the world population has been infected by T. gondii [ 2 ]. The large number of infections has led researchers to study the “symbiotic” relationship between T. gondii and the different hosts [ 3 ]. However, as an exogenous parasite, T. gondii is always harmful to the body organs, where infection commonly occurs via oral, blood, and placental routes [ 4 ].…”