Risk Factors for Difficulties in Reading and Writing Kanji in Elementary School Second Grade Pupils

Abstract

Words in Japanese can be written using as many as four different ways: in kanji (Chinese characters), in kana (katakana and hiragana, which are 2 ways of writing the same syllabary), and in alphabetic letters. In the 2nd grade of Japanese elementary schools, reading words written in kana, as well as special morae, constitute basic skills for learning to read kanji. The present study examined the relation between performance of basic skills for learning kanji and verbal short-term memory. Defıcits in verbal short-term memory may cause severe low achievement in reading and writing kanji.The participants, 3,454 second-grade pupils, took tests of rapid searching of kana words, special morae, and auditory digit span, so that their basic skills for learning kanji and their verbal short-term memory could be evaluated. Previous research by the present authors had indicated that the test of rapid searching of kana words reflected performance of fluent reading of kana words. The children also took achievement tests of reading and writing kanji words. The results were as follows:The participants whose scores on the test of special morae were at a risk level (below the 10th percentile) showed signifıcantly severe low achievement of reading kanji, and were at a 16 times greater risk of showing severely low achievement in reading kanji at the maximum, compared to the children without such risk factors. The participants whose scores on the test of reading kanji were at a risk level showed signifıcantly severe low achievement in writing kanji, and were at a 49 times greater risk of showing severely low achievement in writing kanji at the maximum, compared to children without such risk factors. Early evaluation of risk factors for reading and writing kanji, as well as supportive intervention for avoiding risk factors, might be useful for preventing diffıculties in reading and writing kanji.

Risk Factors for <i>kanji</i> Word-Reading Difficulty in Japanese Elementary School Children: Effects of the Imageability of <i>kanji</i> Words

“…On the kana word and auditory digit span tests, the tenth percentile scores were calculated and categorized as "low attainment" for each test (Naka, Yoshida, Kumoi, Ozeki, Igarashi, & Koike, 2014). In order to evaluate developmental change in groups of children with and without kanji word-reading difculty, scores were compared across the second to sixth grades using the Kruskal-Wallis test.…”

“…On the other hand, the median scores on the backward recall test did not show any distinct increase along the grades. In keeping with the study by Naka et al (2014), the present study adopted the tenth percentile as the criterion for low attainment in each test.…”

Developmental Properties of Risk Factors Causing Literacy Difficulties in English and Japanese

“…An English wordchain test, a romaji writing test, and an odd-one-out test were administered to test the basic skills of English spelling, and reverse digit recall was administered to test the verbal working memory based on the research by Mekaru et al (2015). A Kanji reading test and a Hiragana wordsearch test were administered to test the basic skills of Kanji writing based on Naka et al (2014).…”

“…Naka et al (2014) examined risk factor of Kanji writing in children at second grade of elementary school and found that low performances of Kanji reading is the risk factor with the largest value of odds ratio. e nding of the present study is considered to coincide with results of Naka et al (2014) at every grades of junior high school. Regarding the English wordchain, it is necessary to consider similar aspects of visual processing between English spelling and Kanji writing.…”

“…e risk factors of English spelling di culty, skills of romaji, uent visual cognition of English word, and knowledge of opaque orthography have been selected, based on the research of Mekaru et al (2015). As the risk factors of di culty with Kanji writing, di culty with Kanji reading, and uent Hiragana word cognition have been selected based on the research of Naka, Yoshida, Kumoi, Ozeki, Igarashi, and Koike (2014).…”