Risk and Protective Factors Among Palestinian Women Living in a Context of Prolonged Armed Conflict and Political Oppression

Abstract

Research has widely documented the effects of war and political violence on the functioning and well-being of adults and children. Yet, within this literature, women’s agency in the face of war-related adversity and political violence remains underexplored. The present study was conducted in the Gaza Strip in the aftermath of the most recent war on Gaza in 2014, with the aim of investigating the consequences of war and political violence for women’s mental health and psychological functioning. Based on interviews with 21 Palestinian women exposed to extreme war-related traumatic events, the article offers an analysis of the risk and protective factors affecting their well-being and enhancing (or diminishing) their agency. Human Security, Family Ties, Psychosocial Resources, Individual Resources, and Motherhood emerged from the women’s narratives as key factors contributing to the maintenance of positive psychological functioning and the ability to adjust to traumatic war events in the aftermath of acute armed conflict. These exploratory findings suggest that Palestinian women display a high level of functioning and resources for adjustment that is preserved after periods of devastating armed conflict. The study draws attention to a set of protective factors for the well-being of women and their families when living with chronic political violence.

Thirty Years of Human Rights Study in the Web of Science Database (1990–2020)

“…This kind of violence against women is forbidden under international humanitarian law [ 36 ]: Rule 93 of this document states that rape and other forms of sexual violence are prohibited [ 78 ]. In addition to that, studies of environments of armed conflict also indicates that women are more predisposed than men to feel distress and develop mental illness in such situations, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [ 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 ].…”

“The utmost strength I can bear”: Strategies and psychological costs of mothering within political violence

“…Research on women's psychological experience in Palestine suggests that for women in this context, motherhood appears to be central to (though certainly not the only factor within) relationships among political violence, trauma, and resilience (Giacaman & Johnson, 2013;Peteet, 1997;Shalhoub-Kevorkian, 2006;Veronese, Cavazzoni, Russo, & Sousa, 2019). Qualitative studies have found that mothering in Palestine generates ongoing guilt, fear, and hopelessness due to the impossibility of protecting children from the trauma and humiliation of political violence-while also providing an amplified sense of purpose and meaning for women (Akesson, 2015;Punamäki, 1987;Roth, 2015;Shalhoub-Kevorkian, 2003).…”

How Do We Assess How Agentic We Are? A Literature Review of Existing Instruments to Evaluate and Measure Individuals' Agency

“…From Albert Bandura's (1989Bandura's ( , 1999 early studies in the field of social-cognitive psychology to more recent contributions amongst psychology, sociology, and social geography (Abebe, 2019;Cavazzoni et al, 2021;Steckermeier, 2019;Veronese et al, 2018), the concept of agency defined as 'people's ability to exert control over one's life and pursue goals' has been explored and investigated within different contexts, countries, and populations. So far, several contributions have documented agency in people living in areas of conflict, poverty or marginalization (Gigengack, 2014;Klocker, 2007;Veronese et al, 2019aVeronese et al, , 2019b or among women across the globe (James-Hawkins et al, 2018;Kabeer, 1999;Martin & Phillips, 2017;Veronese et al, 2019a), highlighting participants' actions and reactions concerning situations of oppression or structural violations experienced in everyday life. Moreover, most recently, a major focus of agency also occurs within New Studies on Childhood (Prout & James, 1997), which have come to highlight children's abilities to give meaning to their life contexts and mobilize resources and survival skills to protect their well-being (Abebe, 2019;Cavazzoni et al, 2020;Edmonds, 2019;Tisdall & Punch, 2012).…”

“…On the other hand, for those who approach agency as a construct in its own right, the presence of different definitions in the literature is a source of confusion. At times it is defined in a general and inclusive way as 'the socio-culturally mediated capacity to act' (Ahearn, 2001, p.122) or as 'the ability to define one's goals and act upon them' (Kabeer, 1999, p.438), while others emphasize its strong interconnections with contextual, temporal, and structural aspects (Abebe, 2019;Hitlin & Elder, 2006;Veronese et al, 2019a). This lack of a clear and shared definition is also reflected in the paucity and diversity of attempts at its assessment and by the correspondingly poor development of psychometric measures to do so (Hitlin & Elder, 2006;Kristiansen, 2014;Settersen & Gannon, 2005).…”

“…This is an important outcome since, as previously outlined, the construct of agency is central in psychology and the human sciences, especially in the last two decades. Observing and evaluating people's agentic behaviors and practices (of women, men, children) allows for greater insight into the various modes of negotiating their life contexts, navigating difficulties, and utilizing the resources (personal, local, relational, community) present in their environment (Cavazzoni et al, 2020;Eteläpelto et al, 2013;Spyrou, 2018;Sutterlüty & Tisdall, 2019;Veronese et al, 2019aVeronese et al, , 2019b. Moreover, as the literature points out, investigating people's agency informs us about their well-being, their resilience, and their daily actions with respect to the structures in which their lives are embedded.…”