Revisiting primary school dropout in rural Cambodia

Is child labor a barrier to school enrollment in low- and middle-income countries?

“…Some definitions of child labor include only paid work outside the home (i.e., economic or market work), whereas other definitions include unpaid work, family work, and excessive household chores because each form of work may relate to child schooling, health, and well-being (ILO, 2009). By contrast with its contribution to the family, engaging in child labor is widely believed to have a strong negative impact on schooling (Bezerra, Kassouf, & Arends-Kuening, 2009; Orazem & Gunnarsson, 2003; Ray & Lancaster, 2005) but some research reports little or no relation (No, Sam, & Hirakawa, 2012; Ravaillion & Wodon, 2000). We hope to resolve this ambiguity by exploring relations of different types of child labor with school enrollment in a diverse set of 30 LMIC.…”

Student transition from primary to lower secondary school in Cambodia: Narrative insights into complex systems

“…Moreover, Velasco (2004) found that those in rural and remote locations tend to have poorer infrastructure compared to those in urban areas, particularly in terms of sanitary facilities for female students. Finally, teacher absenteeism in LSSs has been reported to be an issue that can influence student performance and, hence, dropout (Benveniste et al 2008;No, Sam, and Hirakawa 2012). However, No et al (2012) note that lower teacher effort seems to be related to high teacher-student ratios and the need (or requirements in rural and remote areas) for teachers to work two shifts.…”

“…Finally, teacher absenteeism in LSSs has been reported to be an issue that can influence student performance and, hence, dropout (Benveniste et al 2008;No, Sam, and Hirakawa 2012). However, No et al (2012) note that lower teacher effort seems to be related to high teacher-student ratios and the need (or requirements in rural and remote areas) for teachers to work two shifts.…”

“…As of 2001, 50% of children aged 7 to 14 were economically active (Velasco 2004). An important compound effect also occurs: students who start late because they are working are also more likely to drop out at lower grade levels, since opportunity costs increase once students reach their teenage years (Bray and Bunly 2005;No et al 2012).…”

“…Looking at non-economic factors, No et al (2012) found that student self-confidence and relationships among students were important, since Cambodian children are easily intimidated and will drop out if they do not have friends to support them. Separately, relative student achievement and parental education were also statistically significant predictors of student retention between grades 1 and 5.…”