“…These ejected electrons then interact with the outer shells of the atoms/ions and result in an avalanche of secondary carriers, followed by the thermalization of massive electrons and holes in the CB and VB, respectively. As high-energy X-ray irradiation may initiate physically generated defects inside the materials, chemically induced defects are not indispensable in X-PersL [32,38]. Though several possible PersL models have been proposed previously, a clear picture for the trapping/detrapping of charge carriers remains elusive and some speculations are even controversial.…”
“…These ejected electrons then interact with the outer shells of the atoms/ions and result in an avalanche of secondary carriers, followed by the thermalization of massive electrons and holes in the CB and VB, respectively. As high-energy X-ray irradiation may initiate physically generated defects inside the materials, chemically induced defects are not indispensable in X-PersL [32,38]. Though several possible PersL models have been proposed previously, a clear picture for the trapping/detrapping of charge carriers remains elusive and some speculations are even controversial.…”
“…The emission of CR needs the irradiation energy of X-rays to meet the in the high kilovoltage or megavoltage range while only 1% of secondary electrons can be delivered [25,26]. Using X-rays to generate CR and in turn induce luminescence allows imaging at sub-millimeter resolution with nanomolar sensitivity, such as during real-time monitoring during radiotherapy in vivo [25,26]. When X-rays pass through tissues, soft collisions during energy deposition lead to de-excitation of primary or secondary electrons, generating Cerenkov emission (Figure 2A) [7].…”
Cerenkov radiation (CR) from radionuclides and megavoltage X-ray radiation can act as an in situ light source for deep cancer theranostics, overcoming the limitations of external light sources. Despite the blue-weighted emission and low quantum yield of CR, activatable probes-mediated CR can enhance the in-vivo diagnostic signals by Cerenkov resonance energy transfer and also can produce therapeutic effects by reactive species generation/drug release, greatly promoting the biomedical applications of CR. In this review, we describe the principles and sources of CR, construction of CR-activated probes and their application to tumor optical imaging and therapy. Finally, future prospects for the design and biomedical application of CR-activated probes are discussed.
“…X-ray-induced sensing to gain molecular information could be invaluable because of the high penetrance of X-rays and wide availability and acceptance of these sources in biomedical practice [41,42]. The field of X-ray-induced optical molecular sensing benefits from an extraordinarily large range of detectors and sensors for optical emission that have sensitivity to the single-photon level.…”
Section: Cherenkov Light Production From Radiationmentioning
Oxygen sensing with light has been developing for many decades using injectable molecules called Oxyphors, which are pegylated, dendrimer-encapsulated metalloporphyrins that have a phosphorescence emission lifetime that is a direct reporter of the local oxygen partial pressure (pO 2 ). In recent years, the ability to image this emission from tissue with Cherenkov light excitation during high-energy X-raybased radiation therapy has been shown and developed for research studies. The main value of this type of lifetime-based pO 2 sensing, termed Cherenkov-Excited Luminescence Imaging (CELI) is in its ability to image values of pO 2 from within the tissue during radiation therapy using tracers that are systemic and biologically compatible. Spatial mapping of pO 2 can realized either as surface imaging or deep tissue tomography through a few centimeters. The spatial resolution is radiation dose-dependent but can be near 0.1 mm, based upon radiation doses expected in a fractionated treatment plan. When imaging tumors with a broad beam irradiation, histograms of pO 2 values across the surface have been demonstrated illustrating microscopic sensitivity to the ranges of oxygen levels present, and the ability to track these microscopic histograms during daily fractionated radiation therapy is possible. The pO 2 distributions provide for sensitivity to the hypoxic fraction of the tumor-a unique capability of oxygen imaging that has microscopic spatial sampling. Comparisons of the CELI pO 2 method to other oxygen-sensing methods, as well as the ability to use the CELI technique as a tool to examine the optimization of radiation therapy treatment technique is ongoing.
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